Intertestamental Period: Meaning & Events (Timeline)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Most of my undergraduate students assume the chronological gap between the Old and the New Testaments is minimal. They often picture the biblical narrative as a seamless progression, from the laws of Moses and the prophets of Israel to the birth of Jesus and the formation of the early church. 

In truth, there is a significant and often overlooked gap between these two bodies of scripture. This is the period that scholars commonly refer to as the intertestamental period, a time when the “official” voices of prophecy had fallen silent, yet history itself was anything but quiet.

It contradicts the unspoken belief that the Bible’s story flows in one continuous line, with no real interruption in either time or theology. But of course, the reality is far more complex.

Though the biblical canon remains silent, Jewish literature, sectarian movements, foreign domination, and theological evolution were all in motion during this time, quietly shaping the world into which Jesus would be born.

When I first introduce this period to students, they are often surprised by how much happens “between the Testaments.” They hadn’t considered that Judaism underwent radical shifts in thought and structure, that empires rose and fell, and that a great deal of social change took place during the time difference between the Old and New Testaments.

In this article, we’ll explore what the intertestamental period was, when it occurred, and why it matters. We’ll begin by examining how the Old Testament ends — and whether it ends at all in a meaningful sense. 

From there, we’ll trace key events, rulers, and religious shifts across the centuries, building a timeline that illuminates how the so-called “400 years of silence” were a time of extraordinary change.

However, before we set out to explore the intertestamental period, you might want to check out an exciting new 8-lecture online course by acclaimed Bible scholar Bart D. Ehrman: Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law.

In this course, Bart dives deep into what historians and biblical scholars have uncovered about one of the most foundational figures in Judaism, and what we can and cannot know about the Exodus tradition. It’s the perfect companion to understanding the broader sweep of Jewish history.

What Is the Intertestamental Period?

In his book The Creative Era Between the Testaments, Carl G. Howie notes that the “period between the Old and New Testaments is a blank for most laymen as well as many clergymen who are otherwise well-versed in the historical background of the Bible.” So, what exactly is this somewhat enigmatic historical gap that scholars refer to as the intertestamental period?

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Broadly defined, the intertestamental period spans roughly four centuries, from approximately 430 B.C.E., traditionally associated with the prophetic ministry of Malachi, up until around the life of John the Baptist near the turn of the Common Era. 

However, scholars caution against viewing these chronological boundaries as strict or absolute. To illustrate, although Malachi appears as the final prophetic book in the Christian Old Testament, it wasn't necessarily the last Old Testament text written.

From a historical-critical perspective, that distinction likely belongs to the Book of Daniel, composed in the middle of the 2nd century B.C.E. in response to the persecution of Jews under the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. 

Despite Daniel's internal claims of an earlier, 6th century B.C.E. origin, scholarly consensus, as John J. Collins emphasizes, firmly dates its composition to this much later period.

Moreover, people living in the 2nd century B.C.E. certainly didn't conceive of themselves as existing in a transitional or intertestamental period. They understood their religious identity and historical reality primarily through the sacred texts already recognized and revered: Texts that would later collectively become the Hebrew Bible.

By the late 2nd century CE, the Hebrew Bible had achieved widespread (unofficial) acceptance among Jewish communities as authoritative Scripture, forming an essential theological and cultural backdrop against which all subsequent Jewish religious life and literature developed.

Indeed, precisely because these texts had gained authority as Scripture, the intertestamental period was marked by the prolific emergence of other significant Jewish writings. They often sought to interpret, expand upon, or creatively retell themes and narratives inherited from the Old Testament. 

As Peter Enns succinctly put it, the establishment of Scripture inevitably led to the flourishing of interpretations, often at the expense of creating explicit contradictions! 

With the authority of the Old Testament scriptures firmly established, new interpretive traditions flourished in texts such as the Apocrypha (including books such as Tobit, Judith, and 1-2 Maccabees), the Pseudepigrapha (such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees), and the Dead Sea Scrolls discovered at Qumran.

While authorities ultimately did not include these texts in the Jewish canon, they vividly illustrate the ongoing religious creativity and theological reflection that characterized this vibrant yet often overlooked era.

Intertestamental Period: Significant Political and Social Events

In his book An Introduction to Early Judaism, James C. VanderKam explains that the intertestamental period “was an age in which the Jewish people, wherever they lived, were under the political and military control of other nations. Only for a brief time in the late second and early first centuries B.C.E. did they have their own independent state, which existed, however, under the shadow of far greater powers.”

Summarizing the rich political and social tapestry of these four centuries is challenging, but an overview of the era’s most significant changes can illuminate why this period was so transformative for Judaism.

To begin exploring the political and social backdrop of the intertestamental period, we need to start with the era of Persian dominance, which lasted from 538 until 332 B.C.E.

Following the Babylonian captivity, Persian rule was generally tolerant and allowed Jewish exiles to return to Judea and rebuild their Temple. It was an event of immense religious and national significance. As VanderKam notes:

The reconstruction of this “Second Temple” would profoundly influence Jewish religious life, becoming the spiritual center of Judaism until its destruction in 70 C.E.

Persian rule eventually gave way to Hellenistic dominance with Alexander the Great’s swift conquest in 332 B.C.E. Alexander’s empire fragmented upon his early death, leading Judea into periods of alternating control by the Greek dynasties of the Ptolemies (in Egypt) and Seleucids (in Syria).

This Hellenistic era introduced “Hellenism,” the widespread adoption of Greek culture, language, and thought across the Mediterranean and Near East. As David S. Russell notes in his book Between the Testaments:

The encounter with Hellenism reached a critical turning point during the Seleucid rule, particularly under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Antiochus' attempts to forcibly Hellenize Judea led directly to the Maccabean Revolt (167-160 B.C.E.).

Jonathan A. Goldstein, in The Cambridge History of Judaism, explains Antiochus’ motivation vividly:

This crisis sparked a powerful nationalist and religious rebellion, led by the priestly family known as the Hasmoneans. The successful revolt restored Jewish religious practices and led to a brief period of political independence under the Hasmonean dynasty, which lasted roughly from 142 to 63 B.C.E.

Yet, even during this seemingly independent state, Judea remained vulnerable, caught between larger powers vying for dominance in the Mediterranean world.

Furthermore, it never broke out completely from the firm grip of Hellenism, not even under the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty. As Simon C. Mimouni explains in his book Le judaïsme ancien du VIe siècle avant notre ère au IIIe siècle de notre ère (Ancient Judaism from the 6th Century B.C.E. to the 3rd Century C.E.):

The Hasmonean rule came to an abrupt end in 63 B.C.E. when the Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem, marking the beginning of Roman domination. 

Under Rome, Judea lost political autonomy and was governed first by client kings such as Herod the Great, whose rule was marked by impressive building projects (including significant expansions of the Second Temple) but also by harsh political repression. 

Following Herod’s death, direct Roman administration through procurators (including Pontius Pilate) introduced tensions that would later explode in the devastating Jewish War of 66-73 C.E.

Thus, the intertestamental period was anything but quiet. Under Persian, Greek, Hasmonean, and finally Roman dominion, the Jewish people faced constant pressures and transformations.

In response, Jewish communities produced a diverse body of literature vividly expressing their religious ideas, struggles, and hopes within writings that profoundly shaped their theological identity during the intertestamental period.

Intertestamental Period: A Timeline of Key Events

However, before we delve into the most significant parts of the intertestamental literature, we've decided to take a brief chronological detour. After all, let's face it, keeping all those kings, revolts, and empires straight is tough enough without a roadmap. You’re welcome.

Intertestamental Literature: A Brief Survey

During the intertestamental period, “God’s speech” became firmly established in written form, transforming the Judeans into a genuine “people of the book.”

Given the complex political transformations, cultural pressures, and religious challenges they faced, it's hardly surprising that Jewish communities produced a diverse body of literary (non-canonical) works.

One of the most notable genres that emerged during this period is Jewish apocalyptic literature, exemplified by texts such as 1 Enoch. 

Written in stages primarily between the 3rd century B.C.E. and the 1st century C.E., 1 Enoch narrates visions and journeys of the ancient patriarch Enoch, vividly portraying cosmic conflicts, angelic rebellions, and divine judgments.

Similarly, Jubilees, composed around the 2nd century B.C.E., retells the Genesis and Exodus narratives, reshaping Israel’s foundational stories into a theological framework that emphasizes strict observance of the Law and covenantal fidelity in the face of external threats.

Another prominent example is the book of Judith, probably written during or shortly after the Maccabean crisis. 

Although cast as a historical novel set in an earlier period, Judith uses the narrative structure and literary motifs typical of Greek storytelling to assert the moral and religious superiority of Judaism over pagan cultures.

Equally influential, the book of Tobit narrates the adventures of a pious Jewish family in exile, exploring themes of righteousness, divine providence, and religious identity within a diaspora context. Carl G. Howie notes:

These writings, along with others such as the additions to Esther and the various texts later discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, illustrate vividly how Judean literary creativity flourished during the intertestamental period, actively shaping theological discourse and cultural identity as Jewish communities navigated an ever-changing historical landscape.

Conclusion

Each semester, at the end of my lecture on the history of Second Temple Judaism, my students (hopefully!) come to realize that comprehending the history of early Christianity without understanding the intertestamental period is like stepping into the second act of a play without knowing the first.

As we’ve seen, this stretch between the “end of the Hebrew Bible” and the emergence of the New Testament was anything but dormant. Jewish communities lived under a succession of imperial powers, from the Persians to the Romans, each leaving its imprint on Judean society.

In the face of foreign rule, sectarian conflict, and ideological contestation, Jews not only preserved their traditions but reimagined them, producing a diverse corpus of non-canonical literature that explored apocalyptic hopes, reinterpreted ancestral stories, and articulated new visions of righteousness and resistance.

Sefaria Review: App, Meaning, & How to Use

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

I remember one of my older professors describing the sheer effort it once took to conduct serious research before the digital age. Finding a single book could mean traveling from one library to another, combing through endless card catalogs, and hoping that a crucial reference hadn’t already been checked out.

Even with the right book in hand, locating a specific quote or passage often required hours of meticulous page-turning. Scholarship, in those days, was a test of both patience and persistence. As you’ll see from the forthcoming Sefaria review, things have changed substantially. 

Today, we live in an era where information is at our fingertips. What once took weeks or even months can now be accomplished in minutes, thanks to digital platforms that have revolutionized how we access, search, and study texts.

Sefaria is an open-source digital library that is one of the most remarkable examples of this transformation. It makes a vast collection of Jewish texts freely available online. This overview will explore what makes this platform so valuable to scholars, students, and anyone interested in engaging with Jewish literature.

In the following sections, we’ll take a closer look at Sefaria’s features, usability, cost, and user feedback, as well as how it compares to other similar platforms. 

Whether you’re a seasoned scholar or a newcomer to the field, understanding how Sefaria fits into the landscape of digital humanities is essential for appreciating the future of textual study.

However, since we are about to dive into an app that brings the wealth of the Jewish religious tradition to all, you might also be interested in exploring how scholars approach one of the most pivotal narratives in Jewish history — the Exodus. 

In his online course, "Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About the Exodus and the Jewish Law," Dr. Bart D. Ehrman takes a deep, critical dive into what historians and biblical scholars have uncovered about these events.

With 8 engaging lectures, this course unpacks the historical, literary, and archaeological perspectives on Moses, the Exodus, and Jewish law. If you're curious about what scholars really know, check it out!

Sefaria Review: What Is It and Who Should Use It?

At the beginning of our Sefaria review, it’s important to provide its definition. Sefaria is a free digital library dedicated to making the vast corpus of Jewish texts accessible to the world. 

Founded as a nonprofit initiative, it has grown into a robust platform powered by a team of around 40 professionals, including Akiva Berger (Director of Engineering) and Rachel Buckman (Senior Learning and Engagement Specialist). 

Their mission, in their own words, is simple yet ambitious: “To make the core Jewish canon as accessible to as many people as possible.”

With a user-friendly interface and a powerful search engine, Sefaria allows anyone to explore sacred texts like the Tehillim or Psalms, Talmud, Midrash, and rabbinic commentaries, along with translations and interlinked commentaries that provide deeper insight into Jewish tradition.

But Sefaria is more than just a digital archive. It’s an interactive platform that fosters engagement and community. Unlike traditional repositories of Jewish texts, which often exist as isolated databases, Sefaria encourages social interaction.

Users can create accounts, follow others, share insights, and contribute their reflections on texts. This feature transforms the experience from passive reading to active participation, allowing both laypeople and scholars to engage in meaningful discussions about Jewish law, philosophy, and tradition.

The importance of a platform like Sefaria in the digital age cannot be overstated. The Jewish tradition is one of the foundational pillars of Western civilization, shaping not only religious thought but also ethics, law, and cultural identity.

In a world where historical and religious literacy is often in decline, a tool that centralizes, organizes, and democratizes access to Jewish texts is revolutionary. Instead of scattered resources locked behind paywalls or inaccessible academic institutions, Sefaria provides an open door to one of the richest intellectual traditions in human history.

Moreover, Sefaria represents a digital treasure trove of information for scholars, offering instant access to texts that once required extensive library visits or expensive printed editions. And it goes far beyond the Hebrew Bible — we’ll get back to that later. However, before that, let’s take a look at how one can use Sefaria.

Sefaria Review: How to Use It

The first thing I think of when I come across an incredible resource like Sefaria is the cost. Surely, something this valuable must come with a hefty price tag, right? But here’s the surprising part: There’s no cost to download Sefaria — everything on it is completely free.

No hidden fees, no premium subscriptions, and no locked features. The reason? As the Sefaria team puts it: “The Torah is the treasure of the entire Jewish people.” Consequently, it wouldn’t be right to put that treasure behind a paywall.

This philosophy reminds me of an old idea found in both Christianity and Islam — that knowledge is a gift from God and should be accessible to all.

Of course, even free platforms need funding to survive, and Sefaria operates as a nonprofit organization. If you appreciate the platform and want to support its mission, you have the option to donate — either as a one-time gift or through monthly contributions.

It’s a smart model that keeps knowledge open to everyone while allowing those who can afford it to help sustain the project. Even better, Sefaria lets you dedicate your donation in honor of someone, which is a meaningful way to support both the platform and a loved one at the same time.

Sefaria Review: Features and Interface

Sefaria is an open-source platform that can be accessed in two ways: Via its website or through the Sefaria app (available for iOS and Android). I’ve tried both, and I have to say the interface is quite good. Everything is intuitive and user-friendly, making it easy to navigate whether you’re a casual reader or a scholar diving into deep research.

One of the standout features is the search function. You can quickly find any portion of a particular Jewish text by simply typing a keyword or verse. But that’s just the beginning! 

Texts on Sefaria are also topically searchable, which means if you’re interested in a subject like “Jewish Calendar,” “Siddur (Jewish prayer),” or “Social Issues,” you can browse texts that specifically relate to those themes. 

Want to see what the Torah says about Yom Kippur? With a couple of clicks, you’ll have all the relevant verses in front of you — including Leviticus 23:26-32, which details the observance of this sacred day.

However, the real game-changer is the resource panel available when exploring the Tanakh (Jewish Bible). Click on a verse, and suddenly, a wealth of interconnected texts appears — including historical and contemporary commentaries, Talmudic discussions, Midrashic interpretations, and much more. 

Since one of my most recent articles was about Moses and the Exodus, I decided to check out Exodus 7:17-18, which describes the first plague (water turning into blood). With just one click, I could see how different Jewish commentators throughout history have interpreted this passage. 

Take Ibn Ezra, for example — one of the most distinguished Jewish biblical commentators of the Middle Ages. His insights, alongside those of others, provide a unique window into what scholars call “reception history” — how people have understood a particular verse or story in different periods.

Decades ago, accessing these interpretations meant traveling from library to library, sifting through physical volumes. Now? It’s all at your fingertips.

Sefaria also makes it easy to toggle between English, Hebrew, or bilingual modes, displaying both languages side by side. This is a dream feature for scholars and anyone learning Hebrew, as it allows for easy comparison between the original text and its translation.

Where and How Can People Use Sefaria?

While Sefaria is an incredible tool for scholars, its impact extends far beyond the world of academia. It has become an essential learning resource for teachers, students, and laypeople exploring Jewish texts in various settings.

Shifra Elman, Dean of Jewish Studies at The Kehillah School in Palo Alto, explains how she incorporates Sefaria into her ninth-grade class:

This feature is especially valuable for beginners, allowing them to compare translations and gain a broader understanding of key texts. Elman also highlights the topic-based search function, which gives educators a powerful tool for crafting lessons.

For example, searching for “Values” brings up a broad collection of verses related to ethics and practices in Jewish tradition, making it easy to find relevant material for discussion.

User Reviews: What Do People Say About Sefaria?

No digital platform is perfect, but Sefaria comes close, at least according to its users. With a 4.9-star rating on the App Store (based on 36 reviews) and a solid 4.5-star rating on Google Play (with over 3,500 reviews), it’s clear that Sefaria has made a profound impact on those who use it.

The majority of reviewers praise its ease of access, wealth of resources, and contribution to Jewish learning, while a few raise concerns about translation variability and minor technical glitches.

One reviewer on Google Play highlighted the app’s organization and accessibility, writing:

This kind of feedback is valuable, as it underscores both the strengths and challenges of a digital, open-source collection — while the breadth of texts is impressive, translations can vary in quality and interpretation.

That said, for many users, the ability to toggle between English and Hebrew mitigates this concern, as it allows them to engage directly with the original language. Some users also note technical limitations in the app’s performance compared to the web version. One reviewer shared:

This highlights an important distinction: While Sefaria excels in content, accessibility, and textual interconnectivity, it still has room for improvement in terms of technical functionality, particularly on mobile devices.

A standout feature of Sefaria’s user engagement is the team’s responsiveness to reviews. Unlike many other platforms that simply let user feedback sit in the comments section, Sefaria actively replies to concerns and suggestions, offering explanations and possible solutions.

As someone who values transparency and dedication to improvement, I find this particularly important. It shows that the team behind Sefaria is invested not just in maintaining the app but in actively enhancing it based on user experience.

Overall, Sefaria reviews suggest that we are dealing with a really good (online) resource for Jewish textual study. While some users raise valid concerns about translation consistency and minor interface quirks, the depth, accessibility, and scholarly value of the platform far outweigh these drawbacks.

However, Sefaria isn’t the only interesting and useful online tool for studying Jewish texts! In the next section, we’ll introduce Mercava and give a brief comparison between the two!

Sefaria vs. Mercava: A Comparison

While Sefaria and Mercava both serve as digital platforms for studying Jewish texts, their approach, functionality, and intended audience set them apart. 

Sefaria is a completely open-source, free library that grants unrestricted access to an extensive collection of Jewish texts, including, as we have seen, the Hebrew Bible, Talmud, Midrash, and an array of classical commentaries.

Mercava, in contrast, is a multimedia-rich educational platform designed primarily for structured classroom learning. Beyond providing access to Jewish religious texts, it equips educators with a suite of interactive tools, including the ability to create source sheets, flowcharts, and assessments while embedding images and videos into lessons.

Teachers can also differentiate instruction based on student needs, ensuring a more customized learning experience. One of Mercava’s most distinctive features is its classroom management tool, which allows teachers to monitor students' screens in real time, ensuring they remain focused and engaged.

Schools that wish to integrate Mercava more deeply into their curriculum can even apply to become a “Mercava Valued Partner School,” gaining access to a personalized subdomain where students and teachers can be organized by class and grade. 

However, to acquire this level of integration, a school must submit an online request and be accepted into the program.

One major difference between the two platforms is the scope of their translated texts. From what I have found, Sefaria offers a significantly larger collection of translations. For instance, while researching Ibn Ezra’s Commentary on Lamentations, I noticed that Sefaria provides both the Hebrew text and an English translation, whereas Mercava only offers the Hebrew version. 

Another key distinction is the ease of accessing commentaries. On Sefaria, a simple click on any verse from the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) opens a dynamic resource panel, instantly revealing commentaries, Talmudic discussions, and Midrashic interpretations related to that specific passage.

Mercava, on the other hand, requires a more manual process. Users must navigate to the “Commentaries” section, search for the desired commentator, and then locate their works on specific biblical books. 

While this system still allows access to valuable insights, it’s a less streamlined and more time-consuming process compared to Sefaria’s intuitive cross-referencing tools.

Given these fundamental differences, directly comparing Sefaria and Mercava to determine which is “better” is somewhat misleading. They serve distinct purposes. Sefaria is an open-access, textually focused research tool, while Mercava is an interactive, classroom-oriented learning platform. 

Evaluating their value depends entirely on the needs of the user. For someone like me — a historian deeply invested in reception history — Sefaria is the clear choice. The ability to trace how specific biblical verses have been interpreted across different periods is an invaluable feature for scholarly research.

However, for schools dedicated to teaching Jewish texts in a structured educational setting, Mercava provides an engaging, pedagogically rich experience that aligns well with traditional classroom instruction.

In the end, both platforms contribute immensely to the study of Jewish tradition, just in different ways!

Sefaria Review: Conclusion

As Joshua Foer, a co-founder of Sefaria, explained: “We are now living in a digital age, and we are the generation that has been charged with shepherding these texts, this ancient tradition into a new digital era.” In many ways, Sefaria embodies this mission. It bridges the gap between centuries of Jewish scholarship and the limitless possibilities of modern technology.

With its vast collection of texts, intuitive interface, and open-access philosophy, Sefaria has become an indispensable tool for scholars, educators, and lifelong learners alike.

This Sefaria review has explored the platform’s strengths, usability, and role in digital Jewish studies, demonstrating why it has earned widespread acclaim.

Whether you're a historian delving into reception history, a student beginning your journey in Jewish texts, or a teacher integrating classical sources into the classroom, Sefaria offers an unparalleled gateway to one of the world’s richest intellectual traditions. To be honest, tools like this make me feel happy to be living in the 21st century!

Jesus in the Old Testament: Verses that Predict the Messiah

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Can readers of the Bible find Jesus in the Old Testament? The connection between the Old Testament and the figure of Jesus has been a subject of deep exploration and debate for millennia. Christian theologians have long highlighted various Old Testament verses as prophecies that predict the coming of the Messiah, identifying these Scriptures as pointing directly to Jesus.

However, the interpretation of these passages is not without controversy. Biblical scholars often challenge the application of these Old Testament verses to Jesus, emphasizing the need to understand the historical and literary context in which they were originally written.

In this article, I’ll look at some of the most commonly cited Old Testament verses that Christians believe predict the Messiah, examine the reasoning behind their interpretation, and consider how scholars view these verses from a historical perspective.

Are There Old Testament Verses About Jesus?

Most of our knowledge about how early Christians related Jesus to the Old Testament comes from the Gospels. The author of Matthew, for example, provides several Old Testament verses he thinks predicted Jesus, along with other verses he thinks were fulfilled by the circumstances of Jesus’ life.

One of the first prophecies Matthew cites is Isaiah 7:14 (cited in Matt 1:23), some translations of which say this:

While biblical scholars often use the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) translation when teaching, I’m quoting this one from the English Standard Version (ESV), both to highlight the traditional formulation of the virgin birth and to prepare you for my later discussion on translation issues with this passage. In addition, Matthew is citing the Greek version of the Old Testament, known as the Septuagint, so his version of these verses is often a bit different from the NRSV and other modern English translations which translated directly from the original Hebrew.

Be that as it may, Matthew clearly believes that the passage in Isaiah predicts the coming of the Messiah, who he believes will be born of a virgin. To this day, some Christians point to this verse as validation for Jesus’ status as the predicted Messiah. In addition, for both Matthew and many modern Christians, this cements Jesus’ divine status, since he was born through divine agency acting upon a human woman.

A second verse Matthew indicates as predicting and validating Jesus as Messiah is Micah 5:2 (cited in Matt 2:6):

Matthew sees this as a reference to Jesus in the Old Testament, and he says his birth occurred in Bethlehem. Unlike the Gospel of Luke, which has an elaborate story about how Joseph and Mary ended up in Bethlehem before Jesus’ birth, Matthew seems to imply that they were already living there, even before they were betrothed.

Matthew then cites a third verse (in Matt 2:15), one line of Hosea 11:1 to explain the sojourn in Egypt taken by Mary, Joseph, and the infant Jesus: “Out of Egypt I called my son.”

While this verse is short and sweet, Matthew sees Jesus as the son who fulfills it. You may remember that in Matthew 2, the Magi come to find Jesus, stopping first in Jerusalem to ask for Herod’s help. Herod, hearing that the Magi are looking for “a child who has been born king of the Jews,” becomes alarmed and orders that all baby boys under the age of two be slaughtered to prevent any royal competition with him.

For this reason, Mary and Joseph escape along with the infant Jesus to Egypt for a time, eventually returning not to Bethlehem but to Nazareth where they remain. This is why the author of Matthew believes that Jesus’ brief time in Egypt is a fulfillment of the prophecy from Hosea 11:1.

Speaking of Herod’s slaughter of the innocents, Matthew’s author also believes that this was the fulfillment of a prophecy found in a fourth verse (cited in Matt 2:18) from Jeremiah 31:15:

Finally, outside of the book of Matthew, one of the most cited of all Old Testament quotations believed to refer to Jesus occurs in Isaiah 53. Parts of it are quoted throughout the New Testament (see Matthew 8:14-17; John 12:37-41; Luke 22:35-38; 1 Peter 2:19-25; Acts 8:26-35; Romans 10:11-21), but modern Christians often refer to it also to prove that Jesus’ crucifixion for the sins of the world was prophesied. I’ll quote some of it here at length:

Note that these verses (Isaiah 53:3-7) speak of someone suffering “for our transgressions,” a claim which Christian theologians have long used to explain why Jesus needed to die on the cross in order to save the world from sin. The passage goes on to say that “the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all,” which could indicate not only that this individual suffered but that his suffering was part of a divine plan. We can see how Christians might interpret this as referring to Jesus’ salvific death.

There are many more Old Testament verses Christians, both ancient and modern, have pointed to as indicating the life and mission of Jesus, but I think we have enough context with these five. Speaking of context, I’ll next look at how scholars interpret these verses based on their historical and literary contexts.

Is Jesus in the Old Testament? A Scholarly View

Let’s begin with Isaiah 7:14, a verse Matthew believes points to Jesus’ virgin birth. It turns out that part of what we have here is a mistake in translation. As I said above, Matthew, like all the New Testament authors, read the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament in its Greek version, known as the Septuagint. As many wise people have noted, translation is extremely complicated. It turns out that Isaiah 7:14 in Greek does not exactly match what the original Hebrew verse said.

The Hebrew verse, as translated accurately into English in the NRSV says this:

How did Matthew get the word “virgin” from a verse that originally just said “young woman”? In the Septuagint, translators translated the Hebrew word “almah” — “young woman” — into the Greek word “parthenos” —“virgin.” It was likely an innocent mistranslation, but nevertheless, this Greek version was Matthew’s source. This is the first issue with citing Isaiah 7:14 as validation for Jesus as Messiah: even if it did refer to Jesus, scholars would say it did not originally indicate a virgin birth.

The second problem, as noted by Bart Ehrman, is that the author of Isaiah is not talking about a future Messiah at all (the word Messiah is never used in this passage). As Ehrman says

This is what the passage was intended to mean: a young woman was already pregnant with a child who would be Judea’s next king and lead Israel into prosperity.

Micah 5:2 is a bit more complicated. Although there is no translation issue with this quotation in Matthew, the original context of the verse is just as important for scholars. In the HarperCollins Study Bible, Carol Dempsey notes that Micah was prophesying during the reign of King Hezekiah, who had instituted many reforms, including changing Judah from a bartering to a monetary economy. This change, while beneficial in some ways, increased the gap between rich and poor.

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Much of Micah’s prophetic book was about the injustice of this new economic system and encouraged the wealthy to help the poor. Since Jerusalem was the capital of Judah and where the king lived, Micah conflated Jerusalem with the wealthy. He therefore said that God had told him the next ruler wouldn’t come from Jerusalem, the center of wealth and power, but instead from a humble small town, Bethlehem. In addition, of course, this tied the soon-to-be-born ruler to the great King David. Again, however, there is no mention of the word Messiah here.

What about Hosea 11:1? Is this line a reference to Jesus’ family fleeing to Egypt to escape the wrath of Herod? According to biblical scholars, the context of the original verse does not refer to this at all.

Instead, it’s about God’s mercy despite the ungratefulness of Israel. We can see this if we look at the whole passage surrounding the line quoted by Matthew, Hosea 11:1-2:

As you can see from the first line, “my son” refers to Israel as a whole. It’s the personification or an individuation of the entire nation of Israel, not an actual individual. The reference is not to a distant future Messiah but to God liberating Israel from slavery in Egypt in the past tense, not a future condition.

Similarly, the passage from Jeremiah 31:15 is taken out of context by Matthew. Rather than referring to a future event, it refers to the sadness of Rachel, the wife of the biblical Jacob, who is used by Jeremiah as a symbol of the nation of Israel, when many Israelites were taken by their Babylonian conquerors away from their homeland and into captivity.

Now, let’s look at Isaiah 53. Certainly on its own, most of the chapter could be read as a description of later theological explanations about the significance of Jesus’ suffering. However, in context, it’s quite different.

The author of this passage was writing during the Babylonian exile to his fellow exiled Jews. But it’s not about one person. Like Hosea, the author of Jeremiah is using an individual symbol, whom he calls the “suffering servant,” to symbolize the beleaguered nation of Israel in captivity. “He” in this passage means “they.”

What the passage says, then, according to J.J.M. Roberts writing in the HarperCollins Study Bible, is that the nation of Israel was despised and rejected by other nations who conquered them. The notion that the servant seemed to be “rejected by God” means that their conquest and captivity by Babylon seemed like God’s judgment on them for their sins.

Bart Ehrman notes that this passage, taken out of context, is often misunderstood. He says that the notion of suffering for “our sins” probably means that those who were taken into captivity in Babylon (not everyone was taken, mostly just the elite) were suffering for the sins of those who remained in the land, a notion of divine retribution found frequently in the Hebrew Bible.

What’s more, Ehrman says the passage cannot be understood in its original context as a future prediction:

Conclusion

Is Jesus in the Old Testament? There are at least two broad ways to answer that question. The first is answered by the authors of the New Testament, particularly the Gospels. Matthew, for instance, finds multiple allusions to Jesus’ miraculous birth in Bethlehem, his fleeing to Egypt with his family, and the slaughter of the innocents by Herod. Other books refer to Isaiah 53 as a reference to Jesus, particularly to his vicarious suffering and death on a cross. Modern Christians have inherited these interpretations.

However, from a scholarly viewpoint, these same verses in their proper historical and literary contexts, did not refer to Jesus at all. They refer to the nation of Israel, often rendering it as an individual used as a symbolic representation of the entire nation. What’s more, they often refer not to future events but rather to interpretations of past events, like Israel’s conquest and captivity in Babylon.

Is Jesus in the Old Testament? There is no final, definitive answer to this question, merely different perspectives from which people have approached it.

When was the Old Testament Written? (Dates of All Books)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The Old Testament, usually viewed as a single, cohesive text, spans centuries and reflects the diverse voices and experiences of multiple authors. When was the Old Testament written? The answer is far more intricate than it might seem.

In this article, I investigate the varied timelines of the Old Testament’s composition, considering  scholarly theories about its authorship, dating, and historical context. From the earliest traditions associated with the Pentateuch to the prophetic writings and wisdom literature, I’ll examine the layers of history embedded in these sacred texts and the challenges of pinpointing their exact origins.

Background: When Was the Old Testament Written?

Although we tend to think of the Bible as one book since its writings are bound together, many different people in many different historical eras wrote it. This is equally true of the Old and New Testaments, by the way. In The Rise And Fall Of The Bible: The Unexpected History of an Accidental Book, Timothy Beal writes that for this reason, it makes more sense to think of the entire Bible as a library rather than a single book.

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For this reason, when we ask the question “When was the Bible written?,” the answer is far from straightforward. The Old Testament, for example, consists of at least 39 books according to all Christian denominations, with Catholics and Orthodox Christians adding several deuterocanonical, or secondary books to the Protestant canon. Jews count the same canon of 39 books as only 24 books by grouping them differently. For example, they consider some books that Christians call two books, such as Ezra and Nehemiah, as only one.

Scholars have spent more than a century investigating the history and composition of each of the Old Testament writings, many of which had more than one author and more than one layer of composition over time.

The Christian Old Testament is generally divided into five categories: The Pentateuch, the Historical Books, the Wisdom Books, the Major Prophets, and the Minor Prophets. Without further ado, then, let’s look at each division of books and their composition.

The Pentateuch

The Pentateuch consists of the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. For Jews, this is called the Torah and signifies the Jewish Law. It describes God’s creation of the world, the birth of the nation of Israel, the Israelites’ slavery in and deliverance from Egypt, and the granting of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai.

Although tradition has long stated that these books were actually written by Moses, there are good reasons for doubting this. In The Bible's Foundation: An Introduction to the Pentateuch, Charles Aaron notes that, as early as the 12th century, people began to question the assumption of Moses’ authorship. In addition, in Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism, Jan Assman writes “We cannot be sure Moses ever lived because there are no traces of his existence outside the tradition.” So if Moses didn’t write the Pentateuch, who did and when?

As Bart Ehrman writes, the scholarly consensus has long held that it was written by four different authors, a theory known as the documentary hypothesis. Scholars call those authors J, E, D, and P.

The first source is known as the Yahwist source since it refers to God as “Yahweh.” Scholars usually abbreviate this source as “J” because the German transliteration of Yahweh begins with a J. The second source is called E because it calls God “Elohim. ” The third source is known as D because it is solely responsible for the book of Deuteronomy. The fourth and final source is called the Priestly source or “P.” Scholars refer to it as this because its main concerns are rules for priests involving the performance of ceremonies and other cultic functions.

As for specific dates, in The Composition of the Pentateuch: Renewing the Documentary Hypothesis, Joel Baden gives us some date ranges for when each of the four sources were written. He says that material written by J was produced between the 10th and 9th centuries BCE. The E source was written about a century later, possibly around the middle of the 9th century BCE. The D source was written later still, probably in the 7th century BCE, while the P source, the latest, was written in the 6th century BCE.

The five books of the Pentateuch reached their final form after the Babylonian Exile (597-538 BCE) during the Persian period (538-332 BCE).

The Historical Books

Next, there are 12 historical books in the Old Testament: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. They constitute about half the Old Testament and were written anonymously. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings tell the story of the Israelites from the conquest of the land of Canaan to the Babylonian exile. In the Eerdman’s Commentary on the Bible, John Rogerson writes that these books, along with Deuteronomy, were originally one long work, known as the Deuteronomistic History. They were written during the Babylonian Exile in the 6th century BCE, likely as an attempt to preserve Israelite culture and history in the face of exile.

In the same Bible commentary, Richard Coggins writes that the books of Chronicles cover much of the same material as the Pentateuch and the Deuteronomistic History and were written in the 4th century BCE. Ezra and Nehemiah, originally one work, were likely finished during the 3rd century BCE.

The books of Ruth and Esther are, in some sense, outliers in this group. In A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Lester Grabbe writes that Ruth’s identity as a non-Israelite in the book of Ruth and the book’s argument for inclusivity of non-Israelites probably places its composition in the 5th century BCE during the Persian period.

Esther was likewise composed during the Persian period, probably in the 4th century BCE. It features a Jewish woman named Esther, chosen by a Persian man to be his queen. The Jewish people under the Persians are then threatened by a high-ranking member of the Persian court and Esther is able to alert her husband to this danger, thereby saving her people.

The Wisdom Books

There are 5 Wisdom Books: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon (or Song of Songs). They were written at various dates and differ from the preceding books in that wisdom is their focus rather than history.

In Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction, James Crenshaw writes that Proverbs was probably completed during the Hellenistic Period (332-198 BCE), although it contained some material that was much more ancient. Ecclesiastes, on the other hand, was finished around the 3rd century BCE, while Job was complete by around the 6th century BCE.

The book of Psalms is a compilation of 150 religious hymns, although Eastern Orthodox churches add several more. Although the  traditional attribution is to Israel’s King David, the scholarly consensus is that this is a misattribution. Instead, scholars believe the Psalms were written by several anonymous authors between the 9th and 5th centuries BCE.

Finally, the Song of Solomon, also known as the Song of Songs, is a long, erotic love poem attributed to King Solomon. In his commentary on Song of Songs, Martin Pope argues that the poem, which refers neither to God nor to the Jewish Law explicitly, might have been part of a ritual presented by some ancient fertility cults. Most scholars believe it was written during the 3rd century BCE and its author is unknown.

The Major Prophets

There are five books of the Major Prophets, so called because they are longer than the books of the Minor Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel.

Although Isaiah is identified as the writings of 8th-century BCE prophet Isaiah ben Amoz, scholarly consensus places its composition during the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE. It actually consists of the contributions of two different authors. Chapters 1-33  contain forewarnings of punishment at the hands of the Babylonians and promises of a later reestablishment of Jerusalem and Judah. Chapters 34-66, on the other hand, assume that judgment has already happened and that restoration is on the verge of taking place.

Jeremiah is a later prophetic book. In The Oxford Companion to the Bible, Robert Davidson writes that the three types of material found in Jeremiah —poems, narratives, and biographies — have different sources. Some of this material may have originated during the Persian period, but in The Prophetic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts, Marvin Sweeney writes that the final version of Jeremiah was probably completed by the 2nd century BCE.

Lamentations is a collection of poems lamenting the destruction of Jerusalem, which occurred in 586 BCE. Because it follows the book of Jeremiah in the Bible and addresses some of the same themes, it was long attributed to the prophet Jeremiah, an attribution since discarded by biblical scholars. In The Jewish Study Bible, Adele Berlin writes that Lamentations was compiled by the end of the 6th century BCE.

The book of Ezekiel claims to recount six visions of the prophet Ezekiel in Babylon during the Babylonian exile. The book focuses on three major themes. Chapters 1-24 address the judgment on Israel, chapters 25-32 concern the judgment on the nations, and chapters 33-48, make promises of future blessings for Israel. Like Lamentations, it was likely composed in the 6th century BCE.

Daniel differs from the other Major Prophets in that it was written much later. Although its setting is the 6th century BCE during the Babylonian exile, scholars generally agree that it was written in the 2nd century BCE. It was a response to a different conflict when the tyrannical king Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid empire threatened to destroy Jewish religious traditions. Daniel was written as an encouragement to those fighting for those traditions, showing that since they had successfully survived the Babylonian exile, they would outlast the Seleucid oppression as well.

The Minor Prophets

There are 12 books of the Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. In A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context, Michael Coogan writes that each book contains three types of material: autobiographical writing on the prophet whose name is given to the book, biographical writing about the prophet in the third person, and prophetic speeches by the prophets, often in the form of poetry. The exception to these is the Book of Jonah, a narrative about the titular prophet, written anonymously.

Hosea, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, and Joel can be dated to the early part of the Assyrian period (912-612 BCE). Then, the dating for Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah is attributed to the later part of the same period. Finally, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi are usually dated to the Persian period (559-331 BCE).

When was the Old Testament written? Although we know the approximate answer for the individual books, when did the Old Testament become one whole unit, otherwise known as a canon?

Formation of the Old Testament Canon

In How to Read the Bible, Mark Zvi Brettler writes that Jews saw the five books of the Pentateuch as authoritative Scripture by the 5th century BCE. He writes that a similar status was conferred on all the prophetic books sometime in the 2nd century BCE. However, Brettler says that the other Jewish Scriptures had a more flexible standing. Books that one group saw as Scripture were sometimes either entirely rejected or given much less status by other groups. The Jewish canon, or Tanakh, was likely solidified by the end of the 1st century CE.

By about 130 BCE, the entire Jewish Scriptures had been translated into Greek — a translation known as the Septuagint— which early Christians would eventually use as their Old Testament. Christian author Jerome completed his Latin translation of the Septuagint Latin around 400 CE, and Protestant Bibles generally agreed with Jerome’s choices of canonical books. 

Conclusion

When was the Old Testament written? Determining the answer is not simple as it may at first sound. The Old Testament is a collection of many books written (mostly anonymously) by many different authors in many different time periods. Additionally, even at the level of individual books, we can only determine a range of possible composition dates.

The Christian Old Testament is generally divided into The Pentateuch, the Historical Books, the Wisdom Books, the Major Prophets, and the Minor Prophets. Although this is a convenient way to arrange and study the books, it doesn’t always provide a perfect fit. Lamentations, for example, would seem to fit better with the Wisdom Books rather than the Major Prophets, while Daniel, although certainly an important book, was written in a far different time period than the other Major Prophets.

However, as a general rule, these divisions help us to understand and study this massive library of religious and cultural writings from distant times, places, and social locations.

Edomites: Biblical Legend or Real People? (PLUS Modern Day Edom)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

“So Esau (that is, Edom) settled in the hill country of Seir. This is the account of the family line of Esau the father of the Edomites in the hill country of Seir (Gen 36:8-9).” We find in the Old Testament texts references to different ancient people such as the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites. 

For many readers, these names might evoke a sense of mystery. Were these groups real, historical entities, or are they the stuff of legend, like the famous Atlantida — woven into the fabric of ancient storytelling, but lacking historical authenticity?

The Edomites, it turns out, were, indeed, real people. Far from being mere figments of ancient imagination, they left behind a tangible legacy that scholars continue to uncover and study. They left us with enough information about their society, language, and culture to paint a vivid picture of their existence and interactions with other civilizations. 

In the sections that follow, we will delve into the identity of the Edomites as depicted in the Bible, explore their linguistic heritage, trace their historical journey, and examine their lasting impact on the modern world.

By the end of this exploration, the Edomites will emerge not just as names in ancient texts, but as a real people with a rich and fascinating history.

Who Were Edomites in the Bible?

The term "Edomites" comes from the Hebrew word "Edom," which means “red”. This name is traditionally associated with Esau, the brother of Jacob, who was described as red and hairy at birth (Genesis 25:25). The descendants of Esau, often referred to as "Esau's descendants", settled in the region known as Edom. Where is Edom today? Modern-day Edom is located in southern Jordan and Israel. 

The Bible frequently mentions the Edomites in various contexts. Moreover, they often interacted with the Israelites, sometimes as allies but more frequently as adversaries — as we’ll soon explore more.

Take, for instance, Numbers 20:14-21 which recounts a significant episode where the Israelites, led by Moses, sought passage through Edomite territory during their exodus from Egypt. The Edomites refused passage, which led to a prolonged animosity between the two groups: “But Edom answered: ‘You may not pass through here; if you try, we will march out and attack you with the sword’.” 

The Edomite Kingdom

Historically, the Edomites are believed to have established a kingdom in the region known as Idumea, the Greek and Roman name for Edom. The name "Idumea" in the Bible refers to the same geographic area and its people. 

For instance, Isaiah 34:5-6 prophesies against Edom, using “Idumea'' interchangeably: “My sword has drunk its fill in the heavens; see, it descends in judgment on Edom, the people I have totally destroyed. The sword of the Lord is bathed in blood, it’s covered with fat — the blood of lambs and goats, fat from the kidneys of rams. For the Lord has a sacrifice in Bozrah and a great slaughter in the land of Edom.”

The Edomite kingdom (Edom on a map) emerged as a significant political entity around the 13th century BCE, lasting until the 6th century BCE. Located south of the Dead Sea, Edom's rugged, mountainous region provided natural fortification and control over trade routes between Arabia and the Mediterranean. 

This strategic position allowed the Edomites to thrive economically by taxing caravans and engaging in trade. Mentions of Bozrah in the Bible refer to the capital of Edom, with Petra (also known as Sela) becoming an important city in later periods.

In terms of social organization, the Edomite kingdom developed from a tribal organization to what Gunnar Lehmann called “the chiefdom”. As he explains: “In early states and chiefdoms, the extended families are assembled in a hierarchical system with mechanisms of “top-down” control. Early states and chiefdoms were usually ruled by monarchs. They exert and create hierarchical power structures through networks and communication with a low level of formal, non-bureaucratic institutions.” 

It seems that already by the 9th century B.C.E., the Edomites formed a kingdom based on hierarchical power structures. Juan Manuel Tebes notes: “The archaeological remains excavated at Khirbet en-Nahas witness the development of a chiefdom polity in the lowlands of Edom in the 9th century B.C.E., with evidence of hierarchical relations of power, as attested by the erection of monumental buildings and defensive structures and the operation of highly specialized economic activities, including the mining and processing of the local copper ores.”

However, we shouldn’t overemphasize the central power of the monarch residing in Bozrah. As Tebes asserts: “Bozrah can be interpreted as a chiefdom whose sovereignty only encompassed the northern part of the Edomite highlands.”

The relationship between the Edomite kingdom and Israel was complex and multifaceted. Despite their common ancestry, as descendants of Isaac’s twin sons (Jacob and Esau), the Edomites and Israelites often found themselves at odds.

In his book Edom at the Edge of Empire, Bradley L. Crowell summarizes their relationship in the following way: “Edom was represented as a neighboring enemy of Judah that is the object of raids or invasions by Judahite kings, and at times, the partial occupation of the land. (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!) In many of the texts of the Deuteronomistic History (e.g. 1 Sam 14:47-48), Edom was used to illustrate the religious fidelity of the Judahite king in question: kings who were faithful to Yahweh expanded their territory to include Edom, kings who did not follow the proper precepts of Yahweh were subject to Edomite invasions.”

However, the Edomites regained their independence during the later years of Solomon's reign and continued to resist Israelite control. The hostilities persisted, with the Edomites frequently joining coalitions against Israel and Judah.

The Collapse of the Edomite Kingdom and the “Birth” of Idumeans

The decline of the Edomite kingdom began in the 6th century B.C.E. It was largely a consequence of the expansion of powerful neighboring empires. The Babylonian conquest of the region, followed by the rise of the Persian Empire, significantly weakened Edom’s political autonomy. 

The Persians incorporated Edom into their vast empire. While they didn’t enforce their religion and allow a degree of local autonomy, Edom’s political independence was effectively over. In other words, Edomites continued to live in their ancestral lands, but their influence and control over the region diminished significantly. 

Nevertheless, they, in part, maintained their social identity among the various groups who lived under the control and authority of the Persian Empire. As Amos Kloner and Ian Stern explain: “Coexistence among various ethnic groups under the Persians and later under the Ptolemies didn’t provoke or generate a competitive atmosphere that resulted in ethnocentrism.”

The evidence collected from the surviving ostraca dated to the 4th century B.C.E., for instance, suggests that Idumeans ceased to be a majority within the society, but they continued to maintain their own identity. 

That being said, some things did change! By that time, the region of Edom was known as Idumea, which reflects the Hellenistic influence following Alexander the Great’s conquests. As was the case with the Jews, Edomites began to be assimilated into the broader Hellenistic world. 

Most cultures find a nice balance between total assimilation and the overwhelming rejection of the dominant culture. In the case of Edomites, that didn’t happen. The final blow to Edomite autonomy came with the Jewish Hasmonean dynasty’s expansion in the 2nd century B.C.E. 

According to Josephus (Ant. 13.256-257), John Hyrcanus I (a Hasmonian ruler) conquered Idumea around 110 B.C.E. and forcibly converted its inhabitants to Judaism. In other words, they were given the choice of either being circumcised and adopting the rest of “the laws of the Jews”, or of being expelled. 

How much authenticity there is in Josephus’ account of the forcible conversion is disputed. However, most scholars agree that the Edomites were eventually integrated into Jewish society, meaning that the prevailing culture largely absorbed their unique identity.

In summary, the Edomites, members of the Esau family tree, were real historical people who played a significant role in the ancient Near East. Their interactions with Israel, their established kingdom of Idumea, and their mention in various biblical prophecies highlight their importance in biblical history.

As we continue to explore their language, culture, and religion, we uncover more about the intriguing history of the Edomites.

What Language Did Edomites Speak? Looking for Answers

Edomite is generally classified as a Northwest Semitic language, closely related to Hebrew, Moabite, and Phoenician. However, the precise classification of Edomite has been the subject of scholarly debate. 

One of the key challenges is the need for more surviving texts. The extant inscriptions are few and fragmentary, making comprehensive linguistic analysis difficult or even impossible.

Michael Avi-Yonah, for instance, argued in his book The Holy Land from the Persian to the Arab Conquest, that the Edomite language was “of Arabian stock” thus suggesting a linguistic influence from the Arabian Peninsula.

This view posits that the Edomites, located at a crossroads of major trade routes, might have adopted linguistic elements from various cultures they interacted with, including Arabian traders and settlers.

However, the similarities between Edomite and other Northwest Semitic languages, especially Hebrew, have led to debates about whether Edomite was a distinct language or a dialect of Hebrew. 

David Vanderhooft, for instance, notes: “None of the texts from the 7th or 6th centuries B.C.E. preserve linguistic information that suggests Edomite was an independent dialect. That is not to say that it absolutely was not. It’s merely to admit that based on the present evidence, there are no significant linguistic differences between texts that are demonstrably Edomite and texts written in the contemporary Hebrew of Cisjordan.” 

Despite Vanderhooft's assertion, other scholars maintain that Edomite possessed unique linguistic characteristics that set it apart from Hebrew and other contemporaneous languages.

For example, Frank Moore Cross, in his work Early Hebrew Orthography: A Study of the Epigraphic Evidence, points to specific phonological and morphological features found in the limited corpus of Edomite inscriptions. Cross highlights variations in the use of personal pronouns and verb conjugations that suggest distinct linguistic patterns. 

It should be noted that the evolution of the Edomite language was likely influenced by the region's political and cultural changes. As Edom came under the control of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and eventually the Persians, the language would have been exposed to external influences.

This linguistic blending might explain some of the ambiguities and similarities observed between Edomite and neighboring languages.

The Edomites Today? Understanding the Identity of a Group

Who are the Edomites today? As we noted in our earlier article on Cannanites, modern studies of group identities have shown that a simple equation of groups from ancient times with modern-day nations is highly problematic. Group identities are fluid and subject to changes over time, influenced by migration, cultural exchanges, and historical events.

As such, we can’t make a straightforward connection between a particular nation today and assert that they are the true descendants of the Edomites.

We mentioned that Edomites experienced a strong assimilation process (or processes!) as they went through the Babylonian conquest and later integrated into other (dominant) cultures such as Persia and Israel.

In that aspect, the purported conversion to Judaism at the end of the 2nd century B.C.E. marked a pivotal point in their cultural assimilation which eventually led to the loss of a distinct Edomite identity.  

In light of these historical processes, tracing the modern descendants of the Edomites is a challenging task. While some groups in the region may carry genetic markers or cultural practices that hint at an Edomite ancestry, these links are often tenuous and speculative.

The concept of a linear, unbroken lineage from the ancient Edomites to a contemporary ethnic group oversimplifies the complex nature of human history and identity. Furthermore, political and social changes over millennia have continually reshaped the demographic and cultural landscape of the Middle East.

That being said, based on the assimilation that happened under the Hasmonean rule, we could (with great caution!) entertain the idea that among the modern Israelites, there are Esau descendants. 

However, rather than seeking a direct lineage, it’s more fruitful to explore how the Edomites have influenced and been influenced by the people and cultures around them. Unfortunately, the scarcity of sources (both historical and archaeological) prevents us from achieving a greater degree of certainty.

Nevertheless, that shouldn’t stop us from trying to dig deeper to discover more about a nation that played a significant part in the early history of the Jewish people. 

Conclusion

The Edomites, or "Esau's descendants," represent a fascinating chapter in the ancient history of the Near East. As a real historical people, they established the kingdom of Edom, which later became known as Idumea in the Bible.

Their interactions with the Israelites, including periods of conflict and cooperation, highlight the complex relationships that shaped the region's history. Furthermore, the Edomites' transition from a tribal society to a structured kingdom exemplifies the political and social developments characteristic of the ancient world.

Ultimately, the story of the Edomites illustrates the broader themes of cultural assimilation and identity transformation. As we continue to study their legacy, we gain a deeper understanding of how ancient peoples influenced and were influenced by their surroundings. 

Intrigued by the mysteries of ancient peoples like the Edomites? Dive deeper into biblical history with Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course, “Finding Moses - What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law”.

Explore the historical and legendary aspects of Moses, the evidence behind the Exodus, the origins of key biblical books, and the true meaning of the 10 Commandments. Enroll now to uncover the fascinating truths behind these age-old stories!

Hittites: Who Were the Hittites? (PLUS Empire Map!)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

In Exodus 3:8, God speaks to Moses through the burning bush, telling him he will deliver the Israelites from slavery. But where will they go after they are freed? God says:

I have come down to deliver them from the Egyptians and to bring them up out of that land to a good and spacious land, to a land flowing with milk and honey, to the country of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites.

That’s a lot of “ites!” But who are all these people? Well, today I’m going to tell you about one of those “ites” that is referenced frequently throughout the Hebrew Bible: the Hittites.

So, who were the Hittites? What language did they speak? What did the Hittites look like? Why are they mentioned so often in the Hebrew Bible, and where are they today? In this article, I’ll answer these questions and more.

What’s In a Name?

The Hittites (Hebrew: “Ha Hittim”) referred to in the Hebrew Bible called their empire Hattusa, which was also the name of their capital city. According to Vladislav Ardzinba, they took this name from an earlier civilization known as the Hattians who had lived in the region of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and had spoken a completely different language called Hattic.

In his book 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed, Eric Cline writes that the people we call the Hittites probably called themselves Neshites after Nesha, initially the most prosperous city of their Empire. He notes, however, that around 1650 BCE, a new Hittite capital city was established at Hattusa. The “Hittites” meaning in Hebrew was simply “people of Hattusa.”

What Does the Hebrew Bible Say About the Hittites?

Ilan Peled notes that the Hittites are mentioned 54 times in the Hebrew Bible. For example, in Genesis 49:29-32, we find that Abraham had bought a field called Machpelah that had a cave used for burials. Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, and Jacob and Leah were all buried in that cave.

Esau, son of Isaac and brother of Jacob, married a Hittite woman according to Genesis 26:34 and 36:2. The Bible generally frames this union negatively. In Genesis 27:46, for example, Esau’s mother Rebecca, worried that her other son Jacob would also marry a Hittite woman, tells her husband Isaac, “I am weary of my life because of the Hittite women. If Jacob marries one of the Hittite women such as these, one of the women of the land, what good will my life be to me?”

The frequent biblical references to Hittites give the impression that there were many of them living in the land of Canaan at the time of the Jewish patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. But even later, during the period of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, they continue to be mentioned.

For instance, a woman named Bathsheba, whom King David desired, was married to a man called Uriah the Hittite, a member of David’s army. David arranges to have Uriah killed so that he can have Bathsheba for himself (2 Samuel 11–12; 23:39; 1 Kings 15:5; 1 Chronicles 11:41). Interestingly, though, the biblical story makes it seem entirely normal that a Hittite would serve in David’s Judahite army.

Despite these biblical references to the Hittites, the archeological record of their civilization is not in complete agreement with the biblical record.

What Does Archeology Tell Us About the Hittites?  (MAP INCLUDED)

Ilan Peled says that there are two eras in which archeological evidence shows the prominence of the Hittites. The first comes from the original Hattians who lived in the Bronze Age (17th-12th centuries BCE). The second is in the Iron Age (9th-6th centuries BCE), the time of the Israelite kingdoms, including that of King David.

Archaeology tells us that this second Hittite Empire ruled over the region of Anatolia, which comprises most of modern-day Turkey, as well as parts of northern Syria (see the Hittite map below). Its capital city, Hattusa, was about 93 miles from the modern Turkish city of Ankara.

Hattusa: The Capital City of th Hittite Empire

In some ways, the city of Hattusa was in an odd location, rather isolated geographically upon a plateau. However, in her book The Hittites and Their World, Billie Jean Collins writes that this location may have been chosen because of the Büyükkale, a huge outcropping of rock that loomed over the city and formed a natural defensive barrier. There was also a year-round water supply in the area.

Hattusa was huge, covering 400 acres and including Upper and Lower cities. Collins writes that, in the ruins of the Lower City, archeologists have found the Great Temple, dedicated to the Storm God and the Sun Goddess, who were the chief deities of the Hittite pantheon. While this is by far the largest temple, over 30 smaller temples have been excavated within the Hattusa site.

From decorations on city walls and temples, it is clear that water and rock were both important elements in Hittite religion. For instance, E.C. Krupp writes that the Hittite king Tudhaliya IV built a shrine to the god Saruma, locating it within a naturally occurring rock sanctuary called Yazilikaya that featured impressive rock-cut reliefs.

What Language Did the Hittites Speak?

Perhaps the most important archeological finds in Hattusa have been the cuneiform tablets, which give us most of our information about the Hittites. Early on, scholars had a difficult time deciphering the Hittite language. However, it was eventually discovered that it was the earliest-known Indo-European language, a language family which includes English, German, Latin, and other languages derived from them.

Based on this language family, most scholars assume that the Hittites were originally one of many nomadic groups living in what is now southern Russia. They then traveled south through the Caucasus and the Black Sea region, eventually inhabiting central Anatolia.

What did the Hittites look like? 

It’s impossible to know. As Billie Jean Collins writes, outside of the Hebrew Bible, the classical sources are entirely silent about them.

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE HITTITE EMPIRE?

According to cuneiform tablets found in excavations at Hattusa, says Ilan Peled, in 1650 BCE, after the Hittite king Hattušili I relocated the capital of the Hittite Empire to a city he named Hattusa, the Hittites were gradually able to expand the Empire’s borders, even reaching the city of Babylon, which they pillaged.

However, this gradual and violent expansion led to conflict with Egypt, the other major empire of that time and region. These two superpowers lived in constant tension, alternating who had the upper hand over decades. However, in 1274 BCE, this tension resulted in the Battle of Kadesh, one of the best-known military conflicts in the ancient Near East.

In the build-up to this conflict, the widow of the Pharaoh Tutankhamen wrote to the Hittite king Šuppiluliuma, asking him to send one of his own sons to marry her. Eric Cline writes that this would likely have eased the conflict and even allowed a joint Hittite-Egyptian empire to form. No doubt understanding this, the king agreed and sent one of his sons. Unfortunately, the son was killed on the way to Egypt, probably by members of the Egyptian court who opposed the marriage.

Enraged, King Šuppiluliuma sent his armies to attack the Egyptian-controlled area on the Syrian border between the two empires. After this, the conflict between them seemed to ease until Šuppiluliuma’s death, when the Hittites began again to expand their borders, eventually leading to the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE.

The Egyptian army, led by Ramesses II, was caught by a Hittite ambush, led by King Muwatalli II and his brother Hattušili III. An Egyptian inscription has been found which declares that, despite heavy losses on both sides, Egypt won the battle.

In reality, though, according to A History of Ancient Egypt by Nicolas Grimal, the battle was probably a draw. Egypt eventually retreated from the city of Kadesh which allowed the Hittites to expand further into Syrian territory. Eventually, the two superpowers signed a peace treaty, which was found on cuneiform tablets in the royal palace at Hattusa.

Despite all their successes, however, in the 12th century BCE, the Hittites would share the fate of other regional superpowers such as Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia. All would diminish in strength and territory until some, the Hittites included, finally disappeared altogether around the time that the Israelite kingdoms were emerging.

Although the genetic remnants of Hittites might live on partially in some of the people of Syria, Turkey, and Lebanon, it’s impossible to know for sure. But if that’s the case, who are all the ubiquitous Hittites in the Bible, especially in the time of David? Hadn’t they disappeared by that time they were written about?

Aharon Kempinski writes that, as I said above, there were two periods of Hittites. The first, from the 17th to the 12th century BCE, were the original Hittites who are seemingly referred to in the Genesis stories about Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

The second, from the 9th to the 6th centuries BCE, are now called the Neo-Hittites by scholars and were present during the emergence of the Israelite Kingdoms, including that of King David. Also, we have to remember that, according to biblical scholars, the events of Genesis were written about hundreds of years after they would have happened.

Because of this, Billie Jean Collins and others have theorized that any and all biblical references to the Hittites are only referring to the Neo-Hittites. The original Hittites and their cultural legacy were long gone by the time the Pentateuch was written.

Conclusion

The Hittites are mentioned many times in the Hebrew Bible, although there are no Hittites today. However, since the stories of the Hebrew Bible are often at odds with archeological evidence, can we confirm that they even existed?

In fact, we have a lot of archeological evidence for the Hittite Empire, most of it from excavations of their capital city Hattusa. We know, for example, that they wrote in cuneiform, that their religion consisted of a large pantheon and thematic emphases on rock and water.

We also know that for a time, the Hittites expanded their empire, occupying most of what is now the country of Turkey, as well as parts of Syria. This brought them into conflict with other great powers of the time, including Egypt. Eventually, their empire would wane and they would disappear from history.

In addition, we know that there were two different groups: the Hittites and the Neo-Hittites. According to most scholars, the Hittites mentioned repeatedly in the Bible were the Neo-Hittites; the first Hittites had ceased to exist by the time the Pentateuch was written.

Ark of the Covenant: Real Historical Artifact or Just a Bible Story?

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The Ark of the Covenant, a revered artifact in biblical history, holds a mystique that transcends its physical form. From its divine origins in the book of Exodus to its enigmatic disappearance from the biblical narrative, the Ark has captivated theologians, historians, and adventurers alike.

But is the Ark of the Covenant real? Can we confirm any of the claims the Bible makes about it? Do we know where it is today? I’ll answer these questions and more in this article.

What Is the Ark of the Covenant?

We first encounter the Ark in the book of Exodus. When Moses is communing with God on Mount Sinai for 40 days, God instructs him to have the Ark built when he goes back to the people below. According to Exodus 25, God instructs Moses to have an Ark – really a chest or a box – built out of acacia wood. One of the main purposes of the Ark initially is to hold the tablets of the Ten Commandments. The Ark is later built at Moses’ behest by two skilled Israelite artisans named Bezalel and Oholiab (Exodus 31:1-6).

God gives Moses very precise measurements for the Ark’s construction, saying that it must be “two and a half cubits long, one and a half cubits wide, and one and a half cubits high.” A cubit, by the way, was an ancient unit of measurement based on the length from the elbow to the longest finger (about 1.5 feet). This would have made the Ark roughly 52×31×31 inches. It was then to be covered in a thin layer of gold, inside and out.

Additionally, God commands that four gold rings be fastened to the chest’s four corners. Through these rings, poles made of acacia wood overlaid with gold are to be inserted for carrying the Ark. The poles are never to be removed from the rings.

To cover the box, there is to be an intricate lid made of gold, known as the mercy seat (some translations simply call it a cover). God then instructs that the mercy seat is to have two golden statues of cherubim placed, one on each end. These cherubim, far from being mere decoration, serve an important role:

And the cherubim shall have their wings spread upward, covering the mercy seat with their wings and facing one another; the faces of the cherubim are to be turned toward the mercy seat. Then you shall put the mercy seat on top of the ark, and in the ark you shall put the testimony which I will give to you. There I will meet with you; and from above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubim which are upon the ark of the testimony, I will speak to you about every commandment that I will give you for the sons of Israel.  -  Exodus 25:20-22

The implication is that the mercy seat is God’s throne, a physical place from which he will rule over his people.

After the Ark is built, the Israelites carry it with them during their forty years of wandering in the desert with Moses. Whenever they stop and camp, the Ark is placed into a special “room”, blocked off by a curtain, within an intricately-made mobile tent of worship known as the Tabernacle.

In Joshua 3, after the death of Moses, his replacement Joshua continues to have the Ark carried with them as the Israelites head into the Promised Land. When they arrive at the banks of the Jordan River, Joshua instructs that the Ark be carried in front to lead the people across. During this crossing, the riverbed under their feet runs temporarily dry through the power of the Ark, allowing all the Israelites to cross easily. The Ark is also weaponized, however.

In Joshua 6, before the battle of Jericho, God commands that the Ark be carried around the city once a day for six days, accompanied by armed men and people playing rams’ horns as musical instruments. On the seventh day, the Ark is carried around the city seven times and when the ram’s horns are blown, the walls of the city collapse, allowing the Israelites to enter in force. It’s understood that the power of the Ark, the conduit for God’s power, allowed this to happen.

Much later, the Israelites decide to carry the Ark into battle with the Philistines (it worked in Jericho, right?). However, the Israelites suffer a crushing defeat and the Philistines take the Ark, likely believing they can co-opt its power for themselves. But when the Philistines take the Ark to their own land, it does not go well.

At the Philistine city of Ashdod, they place it in the temple which houses the idol of their chief god, Dagon. 1 Samuel 5 says that the next morning, the citizens of Ashdod find that Dagon is lying face down in front of the Ark as if prostrating to it. They set it back up but find a similar tableau the next morning, this time with Dagon’s hands also cut off.

Next, the people of Ashdod are struck by terrible misfortunes, including tumors and a plague of rodents throughout the city. Eventually, the Philistines get the picture and return the Ark to the Israelites, who put it in the city of Kirjath-jearim for safekeeping.

When David becomes king, he orders that the Ark be removed from Kirjath-jearim and taken to his capital city of Zion, later renamed Jerusalem. However, in the process of moving the Ark, one of the drivers of the cart on which it is being transported touches the Ark to steady it and immediately falls dead. Eventually, David (very carefully) installs the Ark in a special prayer tent in Zion, the Temple not having yet been built.

David’s son Solomon builds the first Jewish Temple with a special room to house the Ark. Soon after this, however, the Ark disappears from the biblical story.

While the Ark is not specifically mentioned in the story of the Babylonian exile, later Rabbis would speculate about whether it had been taken by the Babylonians or not. Some argued that the Babylonians had stolen it when they conquered Jerusalem while others said it must have been well-hidden so that the Babylonians couldn’t take it.

The Tosefta, a rabbinic work written near the end of the 2nd century CE, argues that Josiah, the king of Judah, stored away the Ark to keep it safe.

What is in the Ark of the Covenant?

While the Hebrew Bible only says that the tablets of the Ten Commandments are placed inside it, the Tosefta says it contained the tablets of the Ten Commandments along with a jar of manna, a jar containing holy anointing oil, and the rod of Aaron which had spontaneously budded. Hebrews 9:4 almost agrees, saying it contained "the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron's rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant."

All the objects listed represent both God’s power and his connection with his people.

Is the Ark of the Covenant Real?

Stories of the Ark have all the hallmarks of legends. There are special instructions directly from God on how to build it and miracles – both benevolent and malevolent – occur in the Ark’s presence. But was there a real Ark of the Covenant?

Scholars generally believe that the Ark or an object like it did exist as a supposed conduit, or maybe just a symbol, for the power of Israel’s God. Archaeologists have found strong evidence of cultic or religious activity from the 8th to the 7th centuries BCE at Kirjath-jearim, the place where the Ark was supposed to have been deposited for twenty years according to the biblical narrative. This evidence includes a large, raised podium on which an object the purported size of the Ark might have rested, possibly in a shrine.

Thomas Römer suggests that the Ark might have originally carried sacred stones similar to those carried by early Bedouins. He hypothesizes that these “stones” may actually have been either a statue of Yahweh, Israel’s God, or a pair of statues depicting both Yahweh and his companion goddess Asherah. In other words, the idea for such a chest could have been copied from the Bedouins.

Scott Noegel, on the other hand, contends that the similarities between the Bedouin chests and the Ark are less than persuasive. The Bedouin chests do not have the Ark's structure, cultic role, or a system of transport using rings and poles. In addition, Bedouin chests were not viewed as the throne of a god, they were not covered in gold, had no decorative angels on them, and had no restrictions on who could touch them.

Instead, Noegel proposes that an ancient Egyptian object called a Bark is a more probable model for the Israelite Ark. The Bark was a wooden box which had all of the qualities listed above which the Bedouin chest did not have. Noegel adds that the Egyptians also put written covenants beneath the feet of idols, a further parallel to the placement of the tablets of the Ten Commandments inside the Ark.

Where Is the Ark of the Covenant Now?

Since the Ark disappeared from the biblical record, many people have searched for and speculated about it, some even claiming to have found its current location. I’ll mention just a few of these here.

In 2 Maccabees, one of the books of the Apocrypha written around 100 BCE, the prophet Jeremiah is warned by God of the imminent Babylonian conquest. He therefore takes the Ark and the Tabernacle and buries them in a cave, declaring that they will remain here until “the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy." This cave has never been located, however.

A Rabbinic document known as Midrash Tanhuma says that the Ark was at one time in Rome:

Rabbi Eliezer ben José stated that he saw in Rome the mercy-seat of the temple. There was a bloodstain on it. On inquiry he was told that it was a stain from the blood which the high priest sprinkled thereon on the Day of Atonement.

Because no empirical evidence of this has been found in Rome, the claim is all but impossible to verify.

Finally, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church claims to have the Ark under guard in the Ethiopian city of Axum. A medieval Ethiopian document claims that Menelik I, first emperor of Ethiopia in the 10th century BCE, brought the Ark to Ethiopia. Menelik argued that this was its rightful place since Solomon had met with the Ethiopian Queen of Sheba, making a special relationship between Israel and Ethiopia (I Kings 10).

Unfortunately, the Church does not allow anyone to see this object and keeps it under armed guard at all times, making it impossible to either verify or refute their claim.

Conclusion

Whatever else the Ark of the Covenant was, it was viewed by the biblical authors as an object of immense power, a channel of the might of Israel’s God. In fact, so powerful was this holy chest that even the Israelites themselves could be hurt by it.

The Bible says Moses was told directly by God how to build the Ark and how to decorate it. The Ark then became a kind of reliquary, housing the Ten Commandments, and, according to later New Testament and Rabbinic writings, manna, holy oil, and the rod of Aaron – all objects proving God’s power and his connection with Israel.

Scholars generally believe that the Ark did actually exist, although claims of its divine power are impossible to verify. However, its allure has continued for millennia, sparking numerous quests  and claims to have found it, none of which have been verified to date.

12 Tribes of Israel: Original Tribes (And Where Are They Today?)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Israel’s identity has been intimately tied to the 12 tribes of Israel for millennia. The tribes are explicitly named in the Bible which traces their roots back to the ancient Jewish patriarchs. But were the tribes real or are they merely part of a foundational myth?

In this article, I’ll explore what the Bible says about the 12 tribes of Israel, what scholars say about their historicity, and what the ongoing quest to find the lost tribes can tell us.

What Does the Bible Say About the 12 Tribes of Israel?

In the tradition of the Hebrew Bible, the 12 tribes of Israel are formed, and thus named, for the sons of the Jewish patriarch Jacob (whose name is changed to Israel by God). The Jewish tribes are named Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Ephraim, and Manasseh, depending on the list (I realize that this is 13 tribes. More on the number of tribes later).

Notice that in our list above, there is no tribe of Joseph, one of the sons of Jacob. This is because in some biblical lists, the tribe of Joseph was split into two, named Ephraim and Manasseh after Joseph’s sons. Let’s go back into the tradition a bit and see how the tribes came about according to the Bible.

At the end of Genesis 11,  the story of the Jewish patriarchs begins. We are first introduced to Abram, soon to be renamed Abraham, and his wife Sarai, soon to be renamed Sarah. They are not Jewish as such, but are born in the land of the Chaldeans (present-day Iraq).

God tells Abraham to leave his native land for a new land, Canaan, which God will grant to him and his descendants. Abraham is thus considered to be the first Israelite in that he obeys what becomes Israel’s God and moves to the land of Canaan.

Despite their advanced ages, Abraham and Sarah are able to have a child whom they name Isaac. Abraham had previously conceived a child with an enslaved woman, Hagar, who gave birth to a son named Ishmael. In Jewish, Christian, and Muslim tradition, Ishmael was the first Arab.

Isaac in turn marries a woman named Rebekah who gives birth to twins Jacob and Esau. Isaac favors his son Esau over Jacob because Esau is a hunter while Jacob is “a quiet man, living in tents” (Genesis 25:27). However, Rebekah, who favors Jacob, helps Jacob trick his blind, elderly father into giving him the birthright which should go to Esau who is the elder twin.

After this, Jacob is forced to flee in order not to be killed by Esau. Jacob eventually takes two wives, sisters Leah and Rachel, and Rachel has the 12 sons who will originate the 12 tribes. The youngest son, Joseph, is sold into slavery in Egypt by his brothers, but eventually becomes a powerful viceroy in Egypt.

When a famine happens in Canaan, Jacob and his remaining children go to Egypt for help and end up staying in Egypt at Joseph’s behest. Eventually, their descendants are enslaved in Egypt and then led out by Moses. When they re-enter Canaan, the land they steal from the Canaanites is distributed among the 12 tribes, which are collectively called “Israel” because they descend from the patriarch Jacob-Israel. See the map based on the book of Joshua.

Years later, a man named Saul from the tribe of Benjamin becomes the first king of all the tribes (1 Samuel 15). When Saul dies, all the tribes accept his son as king except for the tribes of Judah and Simeon who are loyal to David, the man who would eventually unite all the tribes under his own rule.

David’s son, Solomon, succeeds him as king, but after Solomon’s death, the tribes split their loyalties again. Judah and Benjamin in the South stay loyal to David’s line while the rest of the tribes in the North are ruled by a succession of dynasties. Later on, I’ll look into what became of the tribes after this.

This is the tradition upon which Israelite identity was built. But what do scholars say? Did the 12 tribes form the way the Bible says or was that merely a useful founding myth?

What is the Scholarly Consensus about the 12 Tribes of Israel?

The vast majority of scholars say that the simplistic biblical notion that the tribes formed directly from patriarchal roots is a myth. The truth, as always, is far more complicated.

In his book, The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States, Ronald Glassman says it is unlikely that there was ever a fixed number of tribes. (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!)  He writes that the number 12 was less a real number than a symbolic one. Twelve was considered a perfect number in many ancient societies, all of whom used a duodecimal – or base 12 – counting system.

In ancient Greece, for example, there were 12 principal gods in the pantheon and Hercules was given 12 labors to perform. It’s more likely, then, that defining Israel as 12 tribes was an idealization.

There are, in fact, numerous biblical lists of the names of the tribes, not all of which number 12. The Blessing of Moses in Deuteronomy 33, for example, lists only 11, omitting Simeon. The Song of Deborah in Judges 5:2-31, one of the oldest passages in the Hebrew Bible, omits 5 tribes.

Andrew Tobolowsky notes that the idea of 12 fixed tribes seems to have emerged from the Persian period (550-332 BCE) when the Persians conquered the Babylonians and allowed the exiled Israelites to return to Judah. This makes sense: the Israelites were attempting to reestablish their identity post-exile and needed foundation stories to shore that identity up.

Additionally, Immanuel Lewy wrote that tracing the tribes back to individuals is something the Bible often does, often using single persons to represent whole civilizations:

In the Bible, the twelve tribes of Israel are sons of a man called Jacob or Israel, as Edom or Esau is the brother of Jacob, and Ishmael and Isaac are the sons of Abraham. Elam and Ashur, names of two ancient nations, are sons of a man called Shem. Sidon, a Phoenician town, is the first-born of Canaan; the lands of Egypt and Abyssinia are the sons of Ham. This kind of mythological geography is widely known among all ancient peoples.

In other words, this was a common method of representing peoples and their origins in Near Eastern cultures, including Israel.

Jonathan Laden notes that after examining DNA from 93 burials found at Canaanite archeological sites researchers have concluded that most modern Jews and Arabic-speaking people derive at least half their ancestry from Canaanites.

This means that Israelite tribes likely formed over many years in Canaan as Israelites gradually fashioned their own separate identity. Thus, the myth of the formation of the 12 tribes may have been merely a post-hoc explanation of their origins: since they had long been organized into tribes, they filled in the historical blanks with myth, as all societies do.

Who Are the Descendants of the 12 Tribes of Israel Today?

Ancient Israel was conquered and its people exiled repeatedly by other regional powers. When the Neo-Assyrian Empire laid siege to Jerusalem in 721 BCE, 2 Kings 17:5-6 says that their king captured the Israelites and brought them to Assyria (modern-day Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey).

Eventually, the Babylonians would conquer the Assyrians and would take the remaining Israelites away to Babylon. In exile for 50-60 years, the Israelites seem to have retained their  identities as Israelites but lost their tribal identities (or at least tribal identities ceased to be emphasized). According to 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, 10 tribes were exiled and lost. The exceptions, he says, were Judah, Benjamin, and some members of the priestly tribe of Levi.

There are many problems with the historicity of Josephus’ account (starting with the likelihood that there were never 12 fixed tribes at all), but the idea has persisted, leading to numerous quests to find the 10 lost tribes of Israel. These quests have often yielded some interesting theories about what happened to these “lost tribes”.

Among the Pashtuns, the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, there is an old tradition that their ancestry is derived from some of the lost tribes. Anthropologists have taken this claim seriously, and while it remains a possibility, scientific proof has yet to confirm it.

In Ethiopia, the Beta Israel (House of Israel) is a group of people who claim to be descended from the tribe of Dan. However, Jon Entine writes that DNA studies initially showed them to be of Ethiopian ethnicity only. However, DNA traces have recently been found that may indicate some Jewish DNA in this group.

Possibly the strangest theory is that Native Americans are Jews descended from the lost tribes. Tudor Parfitt writes that early Christian efforts to convert Native Americans and the difficulty of doing so made some early missionaries believe the Native Americans were against converting because they were Jews.

The Book of Mormon, written in 1830, also stated that Native Americans were Jews whose descendants had escaped Israel before the Babylonian exile and sailed to America. This is apparently still a popular belief among some Latter-Day Saints.  

Conclusion

The Hebrew Bible says that the 12 tribes of Israel originated with the sons of Jacob-Israel. While this is often accepted as part of the Israelite origin story, different books of the Hebrew Bible list different tribes and different numbers of tribes. This makes historians doubt the simplistic explanation that all of Israel emerged from one family.

Scholars say it is far more likely that stories of Israel’s formation into 12 tribes were both an acknowledgment of the tribal reality of the Israelites and an effort to shore up Israelite identity after years of defeat and exile.

The myth of the 10 lost tribes says that the Assyrians captured 10 of the 12 tribes of Israel and dispersed them. This has led to searches and theories into the fate of these 10 tribes. Different ethnic groups around the world have claimed to descend from them, with some claims arguably more credible than others.

Finding the lost tribes, though, would only be possible if the 12 fixed tribes of Israel were real rather than a foundational myth, something no scholar has so far been able to confirm.

King David: Everything You Should Know about Israel's Greatest King

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

During my last visit to Florence, I stood before Michelangelo's captivating sculpture of David in the Galleria dell'Accademia. That encounter prompted me to think more deeply about David's historical figure and his significance in Judaism and Christianity. 

The powerful form of the marble youth, poised in a moment of contemplative determination, serves as a perfect introduction to a figure who is as complex as he is heroic. This legendary king, warrior, musician, and poet has left a profound imprint not only in religious texts but also in the very fabric of cultural history.

King David remains a pivotal figure in the Bible, revered as a model of righteous leadership and deep faith. His story, from his humble beginnings as a shepherd boy to his ascension to the throne of Israel, is more than just a historical account - it's a narrative rich with themes of power, redemption, guilt, and prophecy.

In this article, we aim to explore King David not just as he is depicted in the Bible but also through the lens of contemporary scholarship. Our journey through the life and legacy of David in the Bible will, therefore, be complemented by insights from modern archaeologists and historians. Their research challenges and enriches our understanding of the biblical narratives, offering a more nuanced picture of the ancient world.

But before we delve deeper into the life of King David, consider enhancing your understanding of Biblical narratives with Bart D. Ehrman's online course, "Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About the Exodus and Jewish Law."

This scholarly and historical exploration differentiates between history and myth in profound Biblical stories, including the Parting of the Red Sea. Join the course to deepen your insights into these timeless tales.

To ensure a clear presentation of the most important facts about David's life as described in the Bible, we have decided to create the following table. With this information in mind, we can begin to explore his life and legacy. 

Who is David in the Bible? (The Story of King David)

To situate the story of David within the Biblical narrative, we have to start with the tumultuous period following the Israelites’ settlement in Canaan. As depicted in 1 Samuel, this conflict set the stage for the emergence of Israel’s first formal leader, Saul who was from the tribe of Benjamin. According to the Bible, he ruled in the late 11th century B.C.E.

Saul was appointed as the nagid, a term denoting a supreme military leader, around whom the tribes united. Under his command, the Israelites managed to fend off not only the Ammonites but also the Philistines, securing crucial respite for the burgeoning nation.

However, Saul’s leadership encountered significant challenges. Although initially successful, he failed to capitalize fully on his victories, particularly against the Philistines. Instead of driving them back to their territory in Philistia, Saul’s efforts resulted in a prolonged stalemate.

This ongoing war of attrition saw territories repeatedly changing hands, with neither side able to secure a definitive advantage. It was during these uncertain times that a pivotal new figure would rise, destined to leave an indelible mark on Israelite history and identity.

Enter David, a shepherd boy from Bethlehem, who would become central to the story of Israel’s emergence as an independent kingdom. What does David mean? His name in Hebrew means “beloved” or “darling” and carries on the symbol of leadership and importance that transcends beyond his lifetime. 

Known for his wisdom and intelligence far beyond his years, David gained entry to Saul’s court through his exceptional musical talents, playing the harp and composing songs that greatly pleased the troubled king. Recognizing his potential, Saul appointed David as his armor bearer.

The rest of 1 Samuel (15: 35 - 31:13) recounts the parallel process in which Saul’s power and influence decline as David rises. As Mark W. Hamilton observes: “In part, the narrative attempts to vindicate David of possible charges of treason and banditry by explaining how in each case when he benefits from the death or defeat of someone else, circumstances extenuate his actions.”

This introduction of David sets the stage for one of the most famous episodes in the biblical narrative - the story of David and Goliath. As we continue, we’ll delve into this legendary encounter thus illustrating how King David's humble beginnings foreshadowed his future as a pivotal leader of Israel.

David and Goliath Story: The Great Victory and the Emergence of the Davidic Kingdom

As the Israelites faced another grave threat from the Philistines, they encountered a new and formidable challenge—a giant named Goliath who could be described as a "weapon of mass destruction”. The mere sight of this towering enemy filled the Israelite soldiers with dread. 

However, amidst the fearful ranks, a young David remained undaunted. Armed with nothing but a sling and a stone, David confronted the giant, striking Goliath squarely on the forehead. The impact felled the giant, and David quickly finished him off with his sword. The Philistine army, seeing their champion defeated, fled in disarray, turning the tide of battle in favor of the Israelites.

Bill T. Arnold explains the essence of the David and Goliath story by noting that this is “about more than a dramatic victory over a terrifying enemy. Saul, who was anointed to provide deliverance from the Philistines, is paralyzed by the crisis, whereas David is fearless. This military victory validates David’s anointing as the king of Israel and shows that Saul is king in name only.”

The victory over Goliath catapulted David into the limelight, with the people clamoring for him to lead their army—a request King Saul felt compelled to honor, despite his growing envy and suspicion of David's rising popularity. 

Yet, Saul's jealousy soon turned lethal, forcing David to flee for his life, finding refuge near the Dead Sea. The political landscape continued to shift rapidly after Saul and several of his sons fell in subsequent battles against the Philistines, leading to Saul's tragic suicide on the battlefield.

Amidst the ensuing power vacuum, internal divisions emerged among the Israelites. While the northern tribes supported Saul's remaining son, Ishbaal, the southern tribes rallied behind David. This discord was resolved when David cleverly negotiated the return of his wife, Michal, Saul's daughter.

This reunion not only secured his political base but also linked him once more to the royal lineage of Saul, thereby solidifying his claim to the throne and beginning his reign as King David. 

The Kingdom of David

The Kingdom of David, established according to the Biblical tradition in the early 10th century B.C.E., marked a significant turning point in the history of Israel. Upon ascending to the throne, David’s initial actions weren’t directed towards immediate military campaigns against the Philistines but towards solidifying the fragile alliance of the tribal federation.

Understanding the critical need for a united nation capable of sustaining and defending itself, David focused on creating strong national structures. This included recruiting and training a national army, organizing the economy, levying taxes, and rallying the populace around a common identity that transcended tribal divisions.

To achieve these goals, David chose Jerusalem as the capital - a strategically wise and symbolically neutral choice. Perched on a high ridge and flanked by three valleys, Jerusalem offered natural defense advantages and stood on the border between Judea and the northern tribes. 

The capture of Jerusalem was accomplished ingeniously and with minimal bloodshed! David used a covert operation that involved soldiers entering the city through a water shaft. This not only prevented a massacre - crucial for future cohabitation - but also demonstrated King David’s tactical shrewdness. 

The consolidation of Jerusalem alarmed the Philistines, prompting them to mount an offensive. However, under David’s leadership, the newly organized Hebrew army repelled the Philistine forces not once, but twice, decisively driving them back to the coastal plains of Philistia. 

These victories not only secured David’s military reputation but also ensured the stability of his kingdom.

In the later years of his reign, as recounted in the story of David in the Bible, his rule was marked by both prosperity and internal strife, including familial discord and rebellion. Despite these challenges, David's reign is remembered as a golden era of leadership and cultural development.

King David’s death, as described in the Biblical narrative, came after a forty-year reign, leaving a legacy that would deeply influence both the historical and spiritual trajectory of the Israelite people.

How Many Wives Did King David Have?

King David's marital alliances weren’t just personal choices but strategic moves that played a significant role in his political and social reign. Initially, David married Michal, the daughter of King Saul, which symbolized his entry into the royal family and legitimized his claim to the throne. However, his marital connections extended beyond this union.

David's wives included Ahinoam the Jezreelite from the north, and Abigail the widow of Nabal from the south, further illustrating his efforts to forge alliances across different tribes and regions within his kingdom.

Additionally, he married Maakah, a princess from the neighboring kingdom of Geshur, which likely served as a diplomatic bond between the nations.

David’s marriages to other women such as Haggit, Abital, and Eglah, whose origins are less clearly defined in the Bible, as well as his subsequent marriages to several other women after the establishment of his reign in Jerusalem, underline the complexity and politically charged nature of his marriages. 

One of the most renowned stories that highlights the interplay of power and personal relationships within David's life is his affair with Bathsheba. This relationship not only led to significant personal and public turmoil but also had dire political consequences.

After spotting Bathsheba bathing, David, captivated by her, summoned her to his palace, leading to an affair that resulted in pregnancy. In an attempt to conceal this, David orchestrated the death of Bathsheba's husband, Uriah, a loyal soldier, by placing him on the front lines of battle. 

This act drew harsh criticism from the prophet Nathan and marked a turning point in David's reign, bringing turmoil and division within his family. 

Mark W. Hamilton summarizes the importance of David’s personal life: “The politics of the harem and its children plays a major role in the stories about David, from his off-again, on-again marriage to Michal to the rivalry between Absalom and Amnon. In several cases, the women exert significant influence on David and others, sometimes changing the course of affairs by their actions.”

So, how many wives did David have? According to the Bible, King David had at least eight wives mentioned by name. Additionally, the Bible notes that he had other wives and concubines - particularly after he became the king with the capital in Jerusalem.

While David's many marriages illustrate the complexity of his personal and political life, his musical and poetic contributions, most notably captured in the Book of Psalms, reveal yet another significant aspect of his legacy.

King David and the Psalms: The Issue of Authorship

The Psalms are a collection of 150 lyrical poems in the Hebrew Bible, often linked to King David as one of the traditional authors, and include themes like worship, sadness, and praise. They are important in both Jewish and Christian worship because they capture the spiritual and emotional spectrum of human experience. These poems are historically significant due to their poetic beauty and impact on religious worship, inspiring hymns and songs for many centuries.

When exploring their authorship, it’s essential to start with the Psalms themselves. The Book of Psalms in the Hebrew Bible attributes 73 of its 150 psalms directly to King David through the phrase "le-David" in their superscriptions.

Traditionally, this has been interpreted to mean "by David," suggesting his authorship. If taken at face value, this could imply that David wrote these psalms or had a significant role in their composition.

However, the use of similar phrases with other names, such as "the sons of Korah," "Asaph," and "Ethan" in the superscriptions of other psalms, complicates this straightforward interpretation. 

This issue deepens when considering the broader linguistic use of the Hebrew preposition "le," which doesn’t denote authorship outside the context of the Psalms. As Joel Baden points out in his comprehensive study of the Historical David: “It means, rather, 'to,' 'for,' 'regarding,' or 'belonging to’.”

These meanings open an entirely new array of possibilities for understanding the superscriptions of the Psalms. This insight suggests that the traditional view of Davidic authorship may be an oversimplification and that these attributions could signify something other than direct authorship, such as dedication or influence.

Further complicating the discussion, modern scholarship views the Psalms as a diverse collection whose composition spans several centuries. Michael D. Coogan describes the structure of the Psalms as "an anthology of anthologies," highlighting the lengthy and complex process of collecting and editing that involved many different authors over time.

This perspective challenges the traditional attribution to King David alone and invites a more nuanced understanding of how this sacred anthology came to be. For those who are interested in the question of the authorship of the Bible, we have a whole article on the subject!

The call for a more nuanced understanding brings us to the contemporary world of history and archeology. What do scholars think about the King David? Was he a historical figure or just a myth? Let’s take a look. 

King David and the Contemporary Scholarship

Did King David exist? The question of his existence has been an important topic within the field of archeology and Biblical scholarship. In the 1970s and 1980s, a “minimalistic approach” gained traction. Its proponents argued that figures like David and Solomon were purely mythical - a product of ancient storytellers. 

However, the consensus has shifted significantly over the past few decades. Most contemporary scholars now acknowledge that David likely did exist, though the precise details of his reign remain obscured by the mists of time. 

One persuasive line of evidence supporting David's historicity comes from the literary complexity of the books of 1 and 2 Samuel. These texts present a nuanced portrayal of cultural practices and include minor characters like Saul's general Abner and David's general Joab, who don’t serve prominent theological roles. 

Moreover, these narratives don’t shy away from presenting David as a flawed individual, detailing morally questionable episodes such as his affair with Bathsheba. This inclusion of unflattering details supports the idea that the accounts aim to document real events and personalities thus passing what historians call the "criteria of embarrassment”. 

Archaeologically, the last two decades have seen significant findings in the area known as the City of David, believed to be the epicenter of David's kingdom. Excavations here, particularly after the Six-Day War in 1967, revealed a series of terraces thought to underlie King David's residential complex.

In 2005, a breakthrough came when Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar uncovered a large stone structure she identified as David's palace. Among the findings were bullae, or clay seal impressions, dated to the 10th century B.C.E., which lend credence to the dating of David's reign. 

Additionally, other artifacts, such as a contemporaneously dated bone and a seal possibly from the Davidic era, have been unearthed, further supporting the historical underpinnings of his Biblical narrative.

Perhaps the most striking external validation of King David's existence came from the 1993 discovery of the Tel Dan Stele by archaeologist Gila Cook. This victory stele, erected by the king of Aram Damascus around 850 B.C.E., bears an inscription that references the "House of David". This was the first time David’s name appeared in an archaeological context.

Initially, minimalists questioned this interpretation, but consensus has grown that the stele indeed acknowledges the dynastic lineage of a historical King David.

However, it’s important to note that these archeological discoveries, while suggestive, don’t conclusively determine the full extent of David’s kingdom or the validity of David’s story as described in the Bible. The debate continues regarding the territorial breadth and administrative sophistication attributed to his reign, as well as the historical accuracy of personal stories like his battle with Goliath, his affair with Bathsheba, or his authorship of the Psalms.

Nonetheless, the evidence collected so far significantly supports the view that King David wasn’t merely a mythical figure but a real historical leader whose actions left a lasting imprint on the region's history.

The Everlasting Influence of David in Judaism and Christianity

King David's legacy endures as a cornerstone of both Judaism and Christianity which highlights his profound influence on these religious traditions. Bart Ehrman, for instance, emphasizes that David’s reign is often viewed as a golden age in Israelite history - a period of strength and unity that remains a symbol of national aspirations. 

In Judaism, the significance of David extends beyond his historical kingship to the theological and messianic expectations that emerged from his lineage. According to the promises recorded in 2 Samuel 7:14-16, God assured David that his descendants would continue his legacy on Israel's throne, fostering the hope of a future Davidic messiah.

This messianic figure was envisioned as a ruler who would restore Israel to its former glory and sovereignty, echoing David's reign. As Biblical scholar John J. Collins notes, reflecting on the work of E.P. Sanders, the anticipation of a Davidic messiah was a common thread in Jewish thought from 100 B.C.E. to 100 C.E. thus underscoring its importance in Jewish eschatological expectations.

The transition of this Davidic expectation into early Christianity illustrates the seamless theological evolution from Judaism. David's role as an ancestral figure to Jesus is highlighted in the New Testament, where his lineage is used to establish Jesus' rightful place in Judeo-Christian soteriology.

The Gospel of Luke, for instance, traces Jesus' genealogy back to David, culminating in the narrative of Joseph traveling to Bethlehem for the census because he was of the "house and line of David" (Luke 2:4). This connection not only roots Jesus in Jewish history but also reinforces his messianic qualifications, fulfilling the Jewish expectation of a Davidic savior.

Furthermore, Paul emphasizes Jesus’ Davidic descent. He articulates in Romans 1:3-4 that Jesus was "descended from David according to the flesh," but elevated to divine status "by the resurrection from the dead."

Summary

The exploration of King David's life and legacy intertwines deeply with both the fabric of ancient history and the spiritual narratives of Judaism and Christianity. This article traverses the journey from David's humble beginnings as a shepherd boy to his rise as the revered king of Israel, delving into his complex character and pivotal moments that shaped his reign. 

David’s historical existence, once debated, has found grounding in archaeological discoveries and literary analyses, suggesting a figure who was as real as he was legendary. These findings not only validate elements of his biblical portrayal but also highlight the sophisticated socio-political landscape of his time

Moreover, David's profound influence extends beyond historical narratives into the realms of theology and messianic expectations. In Judaism, his legacy is seen as a golden age and a symbol of future hopes for a messianic figure from his lineage.

In Christianity, his descent directly ties to Jesus Christ, providing foundational legitimacy to Christ’s messianic role - a legitimacy that most Jews, for various reasons, chose to reject. 

Who Were the Canaanites in the Bible? (And Where Are They Today?)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

During my undergraduate years, while delving deep into the annals of history, I also embarked on a philosophical quest, exploring various viewpoints on the existence of God. This journey introduced me to prominent atheistic thinkers from Friedrich Nietzsche to Richard Dawkins. 

Reading Dawkins, in particular, I encountered the troubling biblical account of the Israelites' slaughter of the Canaanites, a story Dawkins uses to argue that sacred texts, especially the Bible, can’t serve as moral compasses. This confrontation with the harsh narratives of ancient scriptures was disconcerting but also piqued my curiosity about the historical and cultural contexts of these stories.

The tale of the Canaanites isn’t just a footnote in religious texts; it opens up broader discussions about their history, ethnicity, and importance within the Jewish tradition. So, who were the Canaanites? 

In this article, we look at the biblical account of the Canaanites and the findings of contemporary scholarship. Beyond that, we’ll explore who the Canaanites are today thus probing into the realm of genetic research.

By examining who the Canaanites are in the Bible and what discoveries archeologists and other scholars have made, we attempt to bridge the gap between ancient texts and contemporary findings and make these discussions accessible to a broader lay audience interested in the historical foundations of one of the most influential books of all time.

But before we begin our exploration into the Canaanite people, I encourage you to deepen your understanding of the historical contexts surrounding these ancient narratives through Bart D. Ehrman’s online course, “Finding Moses — What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law”. This course features eight 30-minute lectures addressing critical questions like “Was Moses a historical figure or are the stories about him completely legendary?” and “Exodus — fact or fiction? What does the evidence say?” Enroll now to unravel these fascinating inquiries alongside a renowned scholar.

Where is Canaan Today? Geography and History

Where did the Canaanites live? The Land of Canaan holds a geography rich with historical significance and strategic value. Encompassing modern-day regions including Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and parts of Syria and Jordan, Canaan was a melting pot of cultures and a vital bridge between Africa and Eurasia. 

To be more precise, scholars today use Canaan as a geopolitical entity corresponding to the modern states of Israel, the West Bank/Gaza Strip, Jordan, Lebanon, and southern Syria.

Its boundaries, although not static through the ages, generally spanned from the Sinai Peninsula in the south to the Lebanon Mountains in the north, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Jordan River and the deserts beyond in the east.

This area wasn’t only fertile, making it ideal for ancient agriculture, it was also a critical corridor for trade routes connecting ancient Egypt with Mesopotamia, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and innovations.

Canaan’s role as a crossroads for various ancient civilizations made it a region of immense cultural and economic activity and continual conflict and conquest. The strategic value of the land brought many external powers to its doorsteps, including the Egyptians, Hittites, and later the Assyrians and Babylonians.

As we transition from geographical information, we now turn to explore how this land and its people are portrayed in the Hebrew Bible thus shedding light on their roles and relationships within these sacred texts.

Canaanites in the Hebrew Bible: The Archenemy of Israel

Who were the Canaanites in the Bible? The Canaanites, mentioned around 160 times in the Hebrew Bible, occupy a prominent and often controversial place within these sacred texts. In the biblical narrative, Canaan and the Canaanites represent not only a geographical entity but also a complex theological challenge and moral dilemma for the Israelites.

The Hebrew Bible portrays the Canaanites as the original inhabitants of the Promised Land - a land promised by God to the Israelites. This promise is found in texts such as Genesis 12:6-7, where God tells Abram, "To your offspring I will give this land."

After the Israelites' flight from Egypt led by Moses and highlighted by the miraculous parting of the Red Sea, the narrative describes a series of wars against the Canaanites and other groups. This military campaign, aimed at the conquest of Canaan, culminates in some texts in the destruction of Canaanite cities and the extermination of their inhabitants.

The story of the conquest of Jericho as recounted in the Book of Joshua is one of the most vivid and dramatic examples of the Israelite campaigns against the Canaanites. According to Joshua 6, the Israelites encircled the city for six days and on the seventh day, marched around the city seven times. 

With trumpet blasts and the shouting of the people, the city walls miraculously fell, leading to the destruction of Jericho and the extermination of all its inhabitants - men, women, children, and even animals. The account of Jericho’s fall, however, raises profound historical and ethical questions about the narratives of conquest and extermination in the Hebrew Bible.

John J. Collins provides a critical perspective on this, noting: “The story of the capture of Jericho is almost certainly fictitious, but this doesn’t lessen the savagery of the story. We are not dealing in Joshua with a factual report of the ways of ancient warfare. Rather, the slaughter of the Canaanites, here and elsewhere, is presented as a theologically correct ideal."

Some evangelical commentators, on the other hand, have argued that the harsh treatment of the Canaanites was a divine response to abhorrent practices, portraying it as a form of divine justice or purification. However, the problem is deeper than the supposed evil Canaanites' practices. 

The brutality of warfare in antiquity is no greater than in modern times and arguably less. We shouldn’t be surprised that the Israelites, like other peoples, gloried in the destruction of their adversaries. What is troubling, as John J. Collins observes, in the Biblical text is the claim that such action is justified by divine command and therefore praiseworthy.

Furthermore, Niels P. Lemche notes that while studies of the Canaanite religion by the Old Testament scholars have enhanced our understanding of this ancient Near Eastern religion, the presence of anti-Canaanite passages in the Hebrew Bible may have also obscured a true comprehension of Canaanite civilization.

Lemche's observation underscores the challenge of separating historical fact from theological narrative, and it sets the stage for a deeper exploration of the Canaanites through contemporary archaeological and scholarly insights. 

Who Were the Canaanites? Contemporary Scholarship

The historicity of the biblical narratives concerning Canaan and the Canaanites has been increasingly called into question by archaeological and textual findings. These discoveries suggest a different story from the biblical account of the Israelites' conquest of Canaan after wandering in the wilderness for forty years.

Ann E. Killebrew presents a compelling perspective on the emergence of ancient Israel, suggesting it as a process of ethnogenesis - a gradual development of a distinct group identity from a "mixed multitude" of peoples (including the Canaanites) primarily indigenous to the region. 

According to Killebrew, this process "can only be understood in the wider eastern Mediterranean context” that didn’t recognize clear identity boundaries between different groups of people living in that area. 

This nuanced view contrasts sharply with the biblical narrative found in the Book of Joshua, which describes the Israelites (one monolithic ethnic group) entering the promised land and conquering the Canaanites (the other monolithic ethnic group). Most scholars now agree that the account depicted in Joshua is of limited historical value and likely reflects much later historical periods. 

The archaeological evidence supports this reevaluation. Early Israelite villages show a continuity of material culture with that of the Canaanites, indicating that these groups were not distinct but rather part of a continuous cultural and social milieu. 

Dr. Ronald Hendel, in a recent controversial movie, highlighted this connection by noting that Hebrew is a Canaanite language and that early writings from the Hebrew Bible show clear continuities with older Canaanite literature.

The apparent lack of a clear demarcation line between these two "nations" reflects a more fluid understanding of identity in the ancient world that starkly differs from today's conception of nation-states and national identities.

In terms of religion, the Canaanites worshipped a pantheon of gods, which underscores the cultural continuities within the region. Key among these deities was El, the supreme god of the Canaanite religion. 

Ronald Hendel notes the overwhelming existence of evidence suggesting that El was the chief deity for various local Canaanite pantheons including those of Israel. After all, as he observes, the name “Israel” itself originally meant something like “El rules”. 

Furthermore, John J. Collins notes that the most striking feature of Canaanite mythology is “the violence of the goddess Anat, who not only dismembers Death but also berates the high god El on occasion and threatens to smash his skull if he doesn’t comply with her wishes.”

Canaanites’ gods and their associated rituals and myths appear in various forms within the broader context of Levantine mythology which indicates shared religious traditions across what are now considered separate cultural groups.

So, who were the Canaanites? They weren’t a unified ethnic group with a monolithic ancestry or beliefs. Instead, both the writings and archaeological findings suggest that they were a diverse mix of native people and newcomers living in what today is the states of Israel, the West Bank/Gaza Strip, Jordan, Lebanon, and southern Syria. Their connections were primarily based on local politics and economics, tied to individual city-states rather than a single national identity.

Who are the Canaanites Today?

Modern theories about ethnic identity challenge the simplistic idea of directly linking contemporary ethnic groups to ancient peoples. For example, many Europeans today claim descent from ancient groups like the Celts, Franks, or Goths, but as historian Patrick Geary points out, the notion that a national character is permanently fixed in the distant past isn’t valid at all. 

This concept largely emerged with the rise of national identities during the 18th and 19th centuries and served the cause of modern nation-states who had to anchor their ethnic existence in the distant past. 

Similarly, attempting to directly trace the identity of modern-day groups back to the ancient Canaanites oversimplifies a much more complex process. Essentially, if we were to search for direct descendants of the Canaanites today, we would likely be disappointed.

Over centuries, identities evolve and change, moving away from the outdated idea of primordialism which viewed ethnic identities as fixed and unchanging.

This leads us to consider how modern groups have formed, emphasizing that the development of any contemporary group is a lengthy process that started in antiquity and continues today. It's a dynamic process that constantly evolves, shaped by the interactions of both the elite and ordinary people. Ethnicity, therefore, is seen as a social construct, continuously molded over time.

So, who are the Canaanites today? There is no straightforward answer. But if one were to look for genetic traces of the Canaanites, a notable study by Marc Haber, Chris Tyler-Smith, and their team at The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in the United Kingdom provides some answers.

They sequenced the complete genomes of five Canaanite individuals who lived about 4000 years ago and concluded, "The present-day Lebanese are likely to be direct descendants of the Canaanites, but they have in addition a small proportion of Eurasian ancestry that may have arrived via conquests by distant populations such as the Assyrians, Persians, or Macedonians. 

Their research would suggest that Lebanese are the modern-day Canaanites but in light of the complexities behind the formation of ethnic identity, we should be careful not to make any direct correlation. 

In that aspect, it's important to recognize that genes don’t define ethnic identity. While the current population of Lebanon does show genetic ties to the ancient Canaanites, the ethnic identity of Lebanese people results from a far more intricate process involving various cultural, social, and other factors. 

To state plainly, the Lebanese aren’t modern-day Canaanites. Such a statement would oversimplify the complex formation of ethnic identities by reducing it to merely biological terms - a perspective that is not only scientifically flawed but also potentially harmful, as recent history has demonstrated.

As Lauren Winter writes: “Manipulating ethnic definitions through the use of science can have very real social, political, and economic consequences.” 

Summing up Conclusion

Who are the Canaanites? In summing up our exploration of the Canaanites, both in biblical texts and through the lens of contemporary scholarship, we find a narrative deeply intertwined with the complexities of ancient history and modern interpretation.

The Canaanites, as depicted in the Hebrew Bible, emerge not only as theological adversaries but also as people whose real historical context is often overshadowed by the narratives imposed upon them.

Contemporary archaeological studies suggest a close relation between the early Israelites and Canaanites emphasizing the notion that they were a part of the same culture. To put it more bluntly, early Israelites were a Canaanite people. The parting of the ways happened later through a gradual process of identity formation. 

Moreover, genetic studies suggest a “continuity” between the Canaanites and modern populations in the Middle East, particularly the Lebanese, yet the studies of ethnic identities by historians, sociologists, and anthropologists caution against simplifying these connections into direct ethnic lineages.

The quest to define "Who were the Canaanites?" or “Who are the Canaanites today?” often reveals more about our biases in studying the past than about the Canaanites themselves.

It challenges us to reconsider how we conceive of ethnicity and history, reminding us that the past is not just a series of events to be recounted but a complex tapestry of human experience, continually interpreted and reinterpreted through various lenses.