Exodus: How Archaeology Challenges the Biblical Account

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

I remember going to a movie with a couple of friends, excited for the premiere of Exodus: Gods and Kings, directed by none other than Ridley Scott. The anticipation was high, as we were about to witness a cinematic portrayal of one of the most significant stories from the Bible.

However, as the credits rolled, I felt a bit disappointed. The film’s interpretation of the Exodus story fell short of my expectations, yet my fascination with the Exodus itself remained intact. 

This story is far more than an Old Testament narrative or a Hollywood blockbuster. It’s an event — the act by which Moses, or perhaps more accurately God, leads the Israelites out of Egyptian bondage.

The Exodus meaning is deeper than a single event for Jewish people. This act of liberation laid the foundation for their claim to land and identity, which has shaped religious consciousness for thousands of years. 

It’s a story of divine intervention, courage, and redemption, retold countless times in synagogues, churches, and homes. It has inspired generations, not only as a tale of deliverance but also as a call for hope and justice in the face of oppression.

Yet, when one removes the religious significance of the Exodus and views it through the lens of historical inquiry, important questions arise: Did this monumental event, as described in the Bible, truly happen? What evidence, if any, supports the idea that the Israelites were once enslaved in Egypt and then miraculously led to freedom?

In this article, we’ll explore the story of the Exodus, as it appears in the Bible, and examine what scholars and archaeologists have uncovered about its historical authenticity. 

By delving into both traditional and critical perspectives, we aim to understand how archaeology challenges or supports one of the most famous narratives in biblical history.

If the Exodus story has ever left you wondering whether Moses really parted the Red Sea — or if he even existed at all — then Dr. Bart Ehrman’s course, Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law, is your burning bush of insight.

In this eight-lecture series, Dr. Ehrman critically examines the Book of Exodus, tackling questions like: Was Moses a real historical figure or just a legendary lawgiver? Did the Exodus actually happen, or is it more myth than memory? If you’re ready to wander through the scholarly wilderness in search of answers, this course is for you!

The Story of the Exodus in the Bible

The story of the Exodus begins with the Israelites living in Egypt, where they had multiplied in number and become a significant presence (Exodus 1). However, a new Pharaoh (never explicitly named in the Bible) arose. He didn’t remember Joseph’s contributions and saw the Israelites as a threat. 

As a result, he enslaved them, forcing them to labor under harsh conditions. In an attempt to control their population, Pharaoh ordered the death of all newborn Hebrew boys. It was during this time that a Hebrew mother hid her baby in a basket and set him adrift on the Nile River. The child was discovered and adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, who named him Moses. 

As an adult, Moses fled Egypt after killing an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew slave. He settled in the land of Midian, where he married and worked as a shepherd. One day, while tending his flock, Moses encountered a burning bush that was not consumed by the flames.

From within the bush, God spoke to Moses, commanding him to return to Egypt and lead the Israelites out of slavery (Exodus 3). Initially hesitant, Moses accepted the mission, and with his brother Aaron as his spokesperson, he confronted Pharaoh, demanding, “Let my people go.”

Pharaoh refused, prompting God to unleash a series of ten plagues upon Egypt, each more devastating than the last (Exodus 7-12). The plagues included turning the Nile River to blood, infestations of frogs, gnats, and flies, the death of livestock, boils, hail, locusts, darkness, and finally, the death of the firstborn in every Egyptian household.

The final plague, known as the Passover, was the catalyst for Pharaoh to relent. God instructed the Israelites to mark their doorposts with the blood of a lamb, so the angel of death would pass over their homes (Exodus 12).

After the death of the Egyptian firstborns, Pharaoh released the Israelites, who departed hastily, taking with them unleavened bread because there was no time for it to rise. However, Pharaoh soon regretted his decision and pursued the Israelites with his army.

The Israelites found themselves trapped between Pharaoh’s army and the Red Sea. In response, God commanded Moses to stretch out his staff, causing the waters to part and creating a path of dry land for the Israelites to cross. When the Egyptian army attempted to follow, the waters returned, drowning them (Exodus 14).

After their miraculous escape, the Israelites journeyed to Mount Sinai, where God gave Moses the Ten Commandments and established a covenant with them (Exodus 19-20). The remainder of the book details the Israelites' time in the wilderness, their construction of the Tabernacle, and God’s instructions for worship and law.

The Exodus is, as John J. Collins observed, “the most celebrated event in the entire Hebrew Bible, and the event that is most important for the later identity of Israel and of Judaism.” But is it historically verifiable? Before we dig into archaeology and history, let's take a brief look at the issue of authorship.

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Who Wrote Exodus? Traditional Attribution vs. Scholarly Insights

The traditional view, dating back to the ancient world, holds that Moses was the author of the first five books of the Bible, known as the Torah, including Exodus. 

This belief became so ingrained that during the pre-modern time, dissenting voices were often marginalized or hushed up. Even Origen, an early Christian theologian known for his allegorical interpretations and philosophical readings of Scripture, defended the unity of the Torah and argued in favor of Moses’ authorship.

However, the authorship of the entire Bible, including Exodus, remains an enduring mystery. As Richard E. Friedman explains in his book Who Wrote the Bible?:

From apparent contradictions in the text to differences in style and language, scholars have long sought to unravel the origins of the biblical books. Over time, these clues led them to propose that the Torah, including Exodus, wasn’t authored by a single individual but was instead compiled from different sources.

The most widely known theory is the Documentary Hypothesis or Four-Source Hypothesis, which suggests that four distinct sources — labeled J (Yahwist), E (Elohist), P (Priestly), and D (Deuteronomist) — were woven together to form the Torah. Each source reflects a different perspective, historical context, and theological emphasis. 

Nevertheless, the Four-Source Hypothesis has faced significant criticism, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century. Some scholars argue that the theory oversimplifies a complex process of textual development and fails to account for later editorial activity.

Despite these critiques, the notion of Moses as the author of Exodus has never returned as a reliable scholarly theory. As Carol Meyers notes in her Commentary on Exodus:

In other words, although scholars may continue to argue about the details of the composition of the text, the idea of a single Mosaic authorship is no longer considered plausible in modern biblical scholarship.

Now that we have briefly explored the issue of authorship, let’s get into the archeology and historical-critical method, revealing if the story described in Exodus really happened. 

Did the Exodus Happen? Archaeological and Scholarly Analysis

In his book A Rumor of Angels, Peter Berger wrote:

The story of the Exodus is a prime example of this collision between religious tradition and scholarly analysis, leading us to the central question: Are there any historical and/or archaeological evidence for the events described in Exodus? The honest and simple answer must be: No. 

The story of the Exodus as presented in the Bible includes several miraculous events, such as the 10 plagues, the mass departure of the Israelites from Egypt, and the parting of the Red Sea. Despite the story’s importance in the biblical tradition, modern archaeological and historical scholarship has found no reliable evidence to support these events as described.

Extensive excavations in Egypt, particularly in the regions associated with the biblical narrative, have failed to uncover any evidence of a large-scale Israelite presence or exodus. 

Israel Finkelstein and Niel Silberman, for instance, have argued that while the “basic situation described in the Exodus saga – the phenomenon of immigrants coming down to Egypt from Canaan and settling in the eastern border regions of the delta – is abundantly verified in the archeological finds and historical texts,” there is no proof of a massive departing from Egypt during the proposed timeframe of Exodus.

They note:

Moreover, there is no archaeological evidence to support the occurrence of the 10 plagues as described in the Bible (Exodus 7-12). The plagues aren’t recorded in any contemporaneous Egyptian records. While it’s possible that the Egyptians chose not to record such catastrophic events for political reasons, the absence of corroborating evidence from neighboring cultures also raises significant doubts. 

Over the centuries, various scholars and thinkers have attempted to offer naturalistic explanations for the 10 plagues and other miraculous elements of the Exodus. As early as the 2nd century BCE, Jewish authors like Artapanus of Alexandria and Philo of Alexandria proposed that these events could be explained as natural phenomena.

However, such interpretations are problematic for two reasons: 

One of the most notable attempts to reinterpret the Exodus story involves the crossing of the Red Sea. 

Scholars like James K. Hoffmeier have argued that the Hebrew phrase “Yam Suf” should be translated as the “Sea of Reeds” rather than the Red Sea. According to this theory, the Israelites crossed a shallow body of water, such as the Great Bitter Lake, where sandbanks occasionally form when the water level drops.

However, as John Huddlestun has pointed out, there is no body of water known as the “Sea of Reeds,” and this reinterpretation is based on a scholarly construct rather than historical evidence. 

If your Bible states in Exodus 15:4 that the Israelites crossed the “Sea of Reeds,” it has adopted this scholarly reinterpretation. The best translations, however, leave it as “Red Sea.”

Addressing the question of Exodus’ historicity, John J. Collins notes:

In light of the evidence, it becomes clear that while the story of the Exodus remains foundational for religious tradition and may contain some general historical elements, the specific details of the narrative lack support from archaeology and historical records.

Conclusion

As I think back to that day in the cinema watching Exodus: Gods and Kings, I recall the sense of disappointment I felt when the film’s portrayal didn’t quite live up to my expectations. 

However, reflecting on the Exodus story as more than a cinematic spectacle or even a simple historical event reveals its profound significance as a foundational narrative for faith, identity, and the collective memory of Jewish people.

From a scholarly perspective, the lack of archaeological and historical evidence for the specific events described in Exodus challenges its status as a literal historical account. Yet, the absence of concrete evidence doesn’t negate the narrative’s enduring influence or its symbolic power.

While the Exodus may not have unfolded exactly as described in the Bible, it remains a pivotal story that continues to inspire and provoke reflection on themes of freedom, justice, and equality.

Cain and Abel: What Really Happened in Genesis?

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The story of Cain and Abel in the book of Genesis is one of the best-known and widely interpreted narratives in religious and literary traditions. The story raises important questions about divine favor, the nature of sin, and the human condition but also leaves us with significant ambiguities.

In this article, I’ll examine the story’s complexities, including its historical roots, its interpretations over the centuries, and the lessons it may hold for us today.

The Cain and Abel Story

We can find the story of Cain and Abel in Genesis 4:1-16. The story takes place after Adam and Eve have been expelled from the Garden of Eden for disobeying God. Rather than merely summarize the story, I’ll put the verses here in their entirety so we can unpack what’s actually there.

The name Cain (Hebrew: Qayin) means acquire or possess, which is why Eve, after giving birth to Cain, says in the original Hebrew phrase “I have acquired a man from Yahweh.” Rabbi David Zaslow says that the name also carries connotations of creating or building, which makes sense since after Cain is banished, we are told that he manages to build an entire city in Genesis 4:17.

The name Abel (Hebrew: Hevel) comes from a Hebrew root meaning breath, and Rabbi Zaslow notes that it is “commonly used of anything transitory, evanescent, frail.” This makes sense, of course, since Abel does not have a long life. Rabbi Zaslow also says that “the etymologies of [Cain and Abel’s] names give us a hint that this story may never have been intended to be taken as an historical account.” He therefore calls it an allegory. But to what does this allegory refer?

In his book History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History, Samuel Noah Kramer writes that like many stories in the book of Genesis, the story of Cain and Abel may have roots in a Sumerian story about rival gods. The story says that the gods Emesh (meaning “summer”) and his brother Enten (meaning “winter”) had specific roles in the world. The higher god Enlil put Emesh in charge of producing trees, building houses, temples, cities and other tasks, not unlike Cain who first raised crops and then built a city. Enlil put Enten, on the other hand, in charge of the reproduction of animals. These brothers had violent clashes as well.

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In Traditions of the Bible: A Guide to the Bible As It Was at the Start of the Common Era, James Kugel notes that most scholars believe the stories of Adam, Eve, Cain, and Abel are actually about the growth of civilization during the agricultural era. He goes on to note that the Cain and Abel story is most likely about conflicts over territory and resources between itinerant herders and sedentary farmers. If so, this might mean that the story was not intended as a moral lesson but rather as a kind of allegorical description of what happened when herders and farmers came into conflict with each other.

Having said this, various moral lessons have been derived from this story for centuries so let’s look at how people have interpreted it.

What Is the Lesson of Cain and Abel?

Before we look at some interpretations of the story, it’s important to note that there are ambiguities in the story that are difficult to ignore. For example, unless you are prepared to say that herding is morally superior to farming, there is no explicit explanation for why God liked Abel’s sacrifice and not Cain’s. The original Hebrew says that God “looked favorably” upon Abel’s offering and but “did not respect” Cain’s offering. It doesn’t say that Cain did anything wrong up to this point, so God’s choice seems all but arbitrary. Was the offering supposed to be a competition wherein God could only accept one offering? The text doesn’t say so. At this point, no moral lesson is apparent.

However, Cain becomes angry at God for not accepting his offering, and subsequently murders his brother out of envy. One can certainly read into this a lesson on the danger of envy (and, of course, murder!). But rather than unilaterally punishing Cain for his sin, God also gives him lifelong protection. He punishes him by taking away Cain’s ability to farm, but then gives him a mark (we aren’t told what the mark is or where it is on Cain’s body) that prohibits anyone from killing him and allows him to have a rather successful life as a city-dweller. How are we to interpret such a story morally or ethically? What is the lesson of Cain and Abel?

Rabbi Zaslow believes that the main lesson of the story is that humans must accept responsibility for the well-being of other people. He says that “humanity is still trying to achieve the sense of brotherly, sisterly, and neighborly obligation implied by this story. Is Cain still asking God if he is his brother’s keeper? It certainly seems so. Does not Abel’s blood cry out from the ground today too? It certainly seems so.”

As for Christian interpretations, they begin with Hebrews 11:4, which refers to Cain and Abel in this way:

While the author doesn’t get this information from the scanty details of the original story, he interprets God’s approval of Abel’s sacrifice as the result of the faith with which Abel offers it, implying that Cain’s faith was either absent or deficient. This is an argument for faith reckoned as righteousness, also referred to in Paul’s allegorical interpretation of the story of Abraham in Romans 4:3.

Later church fathers would go on to interpret the Cain and Abel story as well. For instance, in Against Heresies, 2nd-century Christian author Irenaeus of Lyon had this to say about the moral of the story:

Irenaeus assumes here that Abel was righteous and Cain unrighteous, even before they had given their offerings to God. This is not said in the original story, of course. But we can see how the lesson of keeping one’s heart and mind pure could be derived from this interpretation.

Fourth-century Christian author Didymus of Alexandria (also known as Didymus the Blind) modifies Irenaeus’ interpretation in his Commentary on Genesis:

For Didymus, then, righteousness is sincerity, represented by Abel, while evil is indifference represented by Cain. How do we know Cain and Abel were oriented this way, according to Didymus? Because Abel offered the best of his animals while Cain did not offer the best of his crops. Again, the story doesn’t say anything about the quality of Cain’s crops; nevertheless, this could be interpreted as a lesson on only giving one’s best to God.

Didymus goes on to offer a further lesson from the story as well, an observation about how our internal states can result in external actions and consequences he finds in the Cain and Abel story:

As an educated man of his time, including in Greek philosophy, Didymus believed that sin and vice were the result of a failure of reason. Thus, any evil internal thoughts, if reason is not applied to them, will result in evil actions. The lesson, then, is to use reason to mitigate any impure thinking that occurs to you before choosing to act.

Conclusion

The story of Cain and Abel is iconic, referred to in literature and films and almost universally known. Despite the brevity (and lack of detail) of the story, it has had a major influence on religious thinkers for centuries. But what is the lesson of Cain and Abel?

In the story, we are not told why God accepts Abel’s gift but not Cain’s. This leaves the rest of the story somewhat ambiguous. Why did God make this choice? Was Cain not entirely liable for his murderous actions since God had arbitrarily provoked him? Was God’s protection of Cain perhaps an acknowledgement of this?

Various interpreters have offered ideas on how the story should be understood. In our own time, for instance, some have interpreted the phrase “Am I my brother’s keeper?” as an injunction to take care of those around us rather than ignore their needs and prioritize our own. Church fathers like Irenaeus and Didymus, on the other hand, emphasized assumptions not evident in the story to develop moral lessons, such as the need for faith and a pure heart in one’s relationship with God.

The First 5 Books of the Bible: A 1,000 Word Summary

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The first five books of the Bible recount key moments of divine intervention, including the fall of humanity, the great flood, the exodus from Egypt, and the rules that would govern Israel's identity and worship.

Along the way, these books offer laws, guidance, and covenants that would shape the future of Israel and its relationship with God. In this article, I’ll offer a concise, 1,000-word summary diving into key events, characters, and themes that make up these central texts.

What Are the First 5 Books of the Bible Called?

The first five books of the Bible — Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy — cover the creation of the world, the establishment of the nation of Israel, and the enslavement and subsequent liberation of the Israelites from Egypt. Altogether, they comprise 250 to 400 pages, depending on the edition and the translation. Don’t worry if that seems daunting, though, because this article will give you a quick 1,000-word summary of all five books.

As a unit, these books are sometimes called the Pentateuch, a word derived from Greek meaning “five books.” Within Judaism, they are called the Torah, a Hebrew word meaning “teaching” or “guidance,” and are absolutely foundational to the religion. Later translators of the Hebrew Bible rendered the word Torah into Greek as nomos or “law.”

Who wrote the first five books of the Bible? They have been traditionally attributed to Moses, but scholars have long known that this is a misattribution. Instead, the 5 books of the Pentateuch were written anonymously. In his book  How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel, William M. Schniedewind writes that the notion of crediting authorship was not deemed significant by the ancient society that created the Pentateuch. In The Composition of the Pentateuch: Renewing the Documentary Hypothesis, Joel Baden writes that at least four different authors wrote the books.

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Now that we know a little background about the first 5 books of the Bible, I’ll give you a synopsis of their contents.

A 1,000-Word Summary of the First Five Books of the Bible

In Genesis: In the Beginning, Dianne Bergant notes that Genesis, the first book of the Bible, can be divided into two parts: the Primeval history and the Ancestral history. In the Primeval history, we read about God’s creation of the world, including Adam and Eve, the first human beings. After they sin against God, Adam and Eve are expelled from the paradisal Garden of Eden. This initial sin then leads to a general corruption of the world which culminates later in God’s destruction of the world and (almost) all its inhabitants by a great flood. Only a righteous man named Noah and his family are spared and left to repopulate the earth.

The Ancestral history then begins to outline the narratives of the progenitors of the nation of Israel, beginning with Noah’s descendent Abraham. God instructs Abraham to leave his home in the land of Ur and journey to the land of Canaan where he ultimately makes a home, along with his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Jacob’s name is later changed by God to Israel, which is the origin of the name of the nation of Israel. He and his clan eventually end up traveling to and living in Egypt, thanks to Jacob’s son Joseph who uses his political power in Egypt to save them from famine.

However, the next book, Exodus, begins years after the end of Genesis with the Israelites having been enslaved by the Egyptians. God then chooses a man named Moses, an Israelite raised in the Egyptian royal court, to lead them out of slavery. Moses, using God’s power, inflicts terrible plagues upon Egypt until the Pharaoh finally succumbs, willingly letting the Israelites go. Following Moses, the Israelites then embark upon a long, grueling journey through the wilderness, arriving at Mount Sinai. There, God promises to give them the land of Canaan once promised to Abraham if they are loyal to him and to no other gods.

Israel thus enters into an agreement or covenant with God, who issues laws to guide them. He also instructs them how to build the Tabernacle, a mobile sanctuary intended to be the dwelling place of God when he descends from heaven to dwell with the Israelites. God thus calls them his chosen people.

The third book of the Bible is known as Leviticus, named after the priestly tribe of Israel known as the Levites. The book begins with detailed instructions from God on how to properly use the Tabernacle they built in the book of Exodus. Then God gives them the rules about what is clean and unclean, including which animals may be eaten and how to slaughter them, how the ceremonies of the Day of Atonement (Hebrew: Yom Kippur) are to be performed, and other ritual and moral rules. God also gives them a long list of punishments they will incur if they don’t correctly follow these laws, as well as the rewards they’ll receive if they do. The book ends with the establishment of the rite of sacrifice in the Tabernacle.

The book of Numbers comes next, its title a reference to a census Moses takes on God’s behalf in the first several chapters in order to count the Israelites. In the beginning of the book, the Israelites are at Mount Sinai, having received the divine laws and covenant while God comes to dwell with them in the Tabernacle. The next step should be conquering Canaan, the land God has promised to them.

After counting the Israelites, Moses continues to lead them toward Canaan. However, the Israelites grumble and complain about the arduous journey, and God kills thousands of them for this offense. At Canaan’s borders, 12 spies are sent into Canaan to survey the inhabitants they will have to defeat. Ten of the spies come back fearful that Israel will not be able to conquer the land, which they claim is populated by giants. The two other spies, Joshua and Caleb, disagree, advising instead that they advance and conquer the land immediately. For the fearfulness of the ten spies, God condemns their entire generation to die outside Canaan in the land of Moab, declaring that the next generation of Israelites will be able to conquer the land.

The final book of the Pentateuch is called Deuteronomy, derived from a Greek word meaning “second law” or “repetition of the law” because it reiterates the commandments given at Sinai. While Deuteronomy contains 34 chapters, the first 30 consist of three speeches or sermons given by Moses to the Israelites at Moab before they enter Canaan.

The first sermon summarizes the 40 years the Israelites wandered in the wilderness to arrive at the borders of Canaan, followed by encouragement to follow God’s law. The second again encourages them to follow the law, insisting that their success in taking possession of Canaan depends on their faithfulness to the law. The third and final speech assures the Israelites that even if they violate the law, they will be given the opportunity to repent.

The final four chapters contain two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses, as well as stories about Moses granting leadership of the Israelites to Joshua and, finally, the death of Moses on Mount Nebo, still outside the promised land of Canaan.

Conclusion

The first five books of the Hebrew Bible are called the Torah — “teaching” or “guidance” — in Hebrew. In the later Greek translation, they were called the Pentateuch, a Greek word simply meaning “five books.” They provide the foundation for both Judaism and Christianity.

While the Pentateuch has long been associated with Moses as the author, scholars know that the five books were authored by numerous parties, with a later editor placing them together as five parts of a single unit.

The first 5 books of the Bible cover a vast array of stories, beginning with the divine creation of the world, the ancestors of Israel, the enslavement and liberation of Israel, and the journey to enter the promised land of Canaan. They contain characters essential to the story of the establishment of the nation of Israel, including Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses. These stories and characters form the basis of religious traditions that have endured for millennia throughout the world.

How Old Was Moses When He Died? (And How Long He Lived Before Jesus)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

How old was Moses when he died? This question has fascinated scholars, theologians, and believers for hundreds of years. The Biblical narrative presents Moses as a towering figure. He led the Israelites out of Egypt, received the Ten Commandments, and guided his people through the wilderness. But beyond his legendary status, when did Moses live, and how long was his life according to tradition?

Recently, I’ve been reading the letters and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., and it’s striking to see how biblical themes (especially those from the Old Testament) shaped his public ministry. Few figures influenced him more than Moses. 

In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech in 1964, for instance, King reflected on the Exodus story, declaring: “The yearning for freedom eventually manifests itself. The Bible tells the thrilling story of how Moses stood in Pharaoh's court centuries ago and cried, ‘Let my people go.’ This is a kind of opening chapter in a continuing story.”

So, it would be a mistake to think of Moses as belonging solely to the distant past. His image is deeply carved into the collective memory of Western civilization. From religious traditions to literature, art to political movements, Moses continues to inspire. 

Given his enduring significance, it’s worth looking back at the biblical narrative and focusing on his timeline, asking key questions: When did Moses live? How old was Moses when he died?

Before we begin, it’s important to clarify that this article won’t address the question of whether Moses was a historical figure. That is a complex issue best saved for another discussion. Instead, this article follows the biblical and traditional accounts, presenting Moses’ life as recorded in scripture without affirming or denying its historical accuracy.

With that framework in mind, let’s explore what the Bible tells us about Moses’ lifespan and his place in history. But before that, I have an important announcement! 

If you're fascinated by how biblical narratives blend history, legend, and myth, you might enjoy Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course, In the Beginning: History, Legend, or Myth in Genesis?

In six engaging 30-minute lessons, Dr. Ehrman examines the Book of Genesis from a scholarly perspective, distinguishing myth from historical reality and exploring famous stories like Noah’s flood and the seven-day creation. Check it out to deepen your understanding of how ancient traditions shaped Biblical accounts!

Moses’ Life: A Biblical Timeline

In Commentary on Exodus, Carol Meyers offers a striking assessment of Moses’ unparalleled significance in the biblical tradition:

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Given his immense significance, it is only fitting that we take a step back and lay out his life in a structured timeline.

Before we explore the broader historical context or compare Moses to other key biblical figures,  though, we should first map out his journey from birth to death. After all, how old was Moses when he died? And at what stages did the pivotal moments of his life take place?

To answer these questions, we’ve put together a timeline summarizing his key life events, including his approximate age at each milestone and traditional dating estimates. We’re quite proud of this, and you should be too! After all, let’s be honest, who doesn’t love a well-organized table?

When Did Moses Live? The Broader Historical Context

The biblical story of Moses, as described in Exodus, begins with a dramatic escape from death. According to the narrative, Pharaoh, fearing the growing population of the Israelites in Egypt, decreed that all newborn Hebrew boys should be cast into the Nile (1:22).

To save him, Moses’ mother placed him in a basket and set him on the river. There, Pharaoh’s daughter discovered and raised him. This act of divine providence set the stage for Moses' eventual role as the leader of the Israelite people. But when exactly did Moses live? What was the historical context of the time?

Dating Moses' life has long been a topic of debate, but many scholars associate his story with the reign of Ramses II, one of ancient Egypt's most powerful pharaohs. As Jonathan Kirsch notes in his Biography of Moses:

This identification is based largely on the biblical reference to the city of “Pi-Ramesses” (Exodus 1:11), which was built during Ramses’ reign and may have been connected to the Israelites' labor. If Moses lived during this time, he would have been born in the 14th or 13th century B.C.E. which would place his leadership of the Exodus in the late 13th century B.C.E.

Ramses II's reign was characterized by military campaigns, massive construction projects, and a heyday of Egyptian power.

Often called “Ramses the Great,” he ruled for an astonishing 66 years, during which he expanded Egypt’s borders, fought major battles such as the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites, and commissioned grand architectural projects, including the temples at Abu Simbel.

In his book Who’s Who in Ancient Egypt, Michael Rice provides a fair summary of Ramses’ life and reign:

Egypt was, therefore, a dominant force in the Near East at this time, exerting influence over Canaan and its surrounding regions. 

Beyond Egypt, the broader Near Eastern world was a dynamic and evolving cultural landscape. Canaan, where Moses was said to have led the Israelites, was inhabited by a mix of peoples, including Canaanites, Amorites, and early Israelite groups. 

Religious practices in the region varied, but they often centered on polytheistic traditions, with deities like Baal, Asherah, and El playing significant roles. As scholar Mark S. Smith explains in his book The Origins of Biblical Monotheism, early Israelite religion likely emerged within this diverse environment, gradually differentiating itself through the exclusive worship of Yahweh.

But how old was Moses when he died? According to Biblical tradition, Moses lived to be 120 years old (Deuteronomy 34:7). His death, as recorded in Deuteronomy, took place on Mount Nebo, where he was granted a vision of the Promised Land but not permitted to enter it. 

How long did Moses live in the Bible? His life is traditionally divided into three distinct 40-year periods: 40 years in Egypt, 40 years in Midian after fleeing Pharaoh, and 40 years leading the Israelites through the wilderness.

With this in mind, we now turn to the question of how Moses' timeline fits within the broader biblical narrative, particularly in relation to figures like Abraham, David, and Jesus.

Moses’ Timeline Compared to Other Biblical Figures

After exploring Moses’ timeline and addressing the question, “How old was Moses when he died?,” we can now examine how his life fits within the broader Biblical chronology.

It’s difficult to look at Moses’ story in isolation, especially from a traditional perspective, without considering other key figures in the Old and New Testaments. After all, Biblical narratives often build on one another, and later authors frequently reference earlier stories to shape theological themes.

For instance, when reading about how Moses’ life is divided into three distinct 40-year periods, you may have immediately thought of Jesus’ 40 days of temptation in the wilderness. That’s no coincidence.

New Testament writers often drew from the Hebrew Scriptures, modeling aspects of Jesus’ life after Old Testament figures and events.

But before exploring the connections between Moses and Jesus, let’s first take a step back and examine how Moses' timeline compares to two other foundational figures: Abraham and King David. Understanding the time gaps between these individuals will give us a clearer picture of where Moses stands in the biblical tradition.

How Long Did Moses Live After Abraham?

According to Biblical tradition, Abraham is considered the patriarch of Israel and a central figure in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He is described as the recipient of God’s covenant, the father of Isaac and Ishmael, and the ancestral forebear of the Israelite people.

In A Brief Introduction to Judaism, Christopher Partridge notes that Abraham is one of the three patriarchs (alongside Jacob and Isaac) who are “continually remembered in the Jewish liturgy as the original recipients of God’s promise and blessing. According to tradition, they are buried in the tomb of the patriarchs in the cave of Machpelah in the modern town of Hebron.”

His story, found primarily in Genesis 12-25, portrays him as a man of faith who left his homeland to follow God’s promise, establishing a lineage that would eventually lead to Moses and beyond.

Traditionally, Abraham is believed to have lived around 2000-1800 B.C.E., though the exact dating is, of course, uncertain. If we follow the biblical chronology, Moses' life is typically placed in the 14th or 13th century B.C.E., meaning he would have lived roughly 500-700 years after Abraham. 

How Long Did Moses Live Before David?

King David is one of the most significant figures in the Hebrew Bible, traditionally regarded as the greatest king of Israel and a direct ancestor of the Messiah in both Jewish and Christian traditions. 

His story, primarily found in 1 and 2 Samuel, depicts him as a shepherd who rose to power, defeated Goliath (a story we all know!), unified the Israelite tribes, and established Jerusalem as the political and religious center of the kingdom.

According to biblical tradition, David lived around 1000 B.C.E., meaning that Moses would have preceded him by approximately 200-400 years.

How Long Did Moses Live Before Jesus?

Even though he was a Jewish prophet, Jesus of Nazareth soon became the central figure of Christianity. Armed with the belief in his resurrection, Jesus' followers saw him as the Son of God and the Messiah foretold in Jewish scriptures. 

His life, teachings, and crucifixion, as recorded in the New Testament Gospels, profoundly shaped not just Christian theology but the broader religious history of the world.

Most historians believe that Jesus was born in the late 1st century B.C.E. In his book, The Historical Figure of Jesus, E. P. Sanders notes: “Jesus was born c. 4 BCE, near the time of the death of Herod the Great; he spent his childhood and early adult years in Nazareth, a Galilean village.”

So, Jesus was born under Roman rule, in a vastly different historical and cultural setting from that of Moses. It's enough to note that the city of Rome was nowhere to be found when Moses lived!

If we follow traditional biblical dating, Moses preceded Jesus by roughly 1300-1400 years. Despite this vast time gap, Moses remained a crucial figure in Jesus’ time. The Gospels frequently reference Moses, and Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, as Dale C. Allison and W. Davies point out, is, first and foremost, depicted as a new Moses.

Conclusion

Moses remains one of the most significant figures in biblical tradition, with his life spanning from his miraculous rescue as an infant to his leadership of the Israelites and his final moments on Mount Nebo. 

Following the biblical account, his life was divided into three pivotal 40-year periods. How old was Moses when he died? Again, if we follow the Biblical tradition, the right answer is 120! A round but also suspicious number.

Finally, by placing Moses within the broader timeline of Abraham, King David, and Jesus, we see that he lived 500-700 years after Abraham, 200-400 years before David, and 1300-1400 years before Jesus. Despite these vast chronological distances, Moses' legacy endured, influencing later biblical narratives and shaping the identities of both Judaism and Christianity.

Who Wrote Leviticus? (And When Was It Written?)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Who wrote Leviticus? The first time I encountered the Book of Leviticus was in my high school religion class. 

Our teacher, a devout Catholic, sparked a heated discussion about homosexuality and the Catholic Church’s stance on it. Inevitably, the conversation turned to questions of sin, morality, and Leviticus. She quoted Leviticus 18:22: “You shall not lie with a man as one does with a woman. It is an abomination.”

When I questioned whether this verse should be read within its historical context, she firmly upheld a literal interpretation, concluding that the Bible clearly condemns homosexuality. That class left a lasting impression, not because of the debate, but because it was my first introduction to the complexities of biblical texts.

Years later, as I explored the composition and authorship of the Bible more deeply, Leviticus emerged as a text that demanded further investigation.

Leviticus is one of the most perplexing books in the Bible. Known for its intricate laws and rituals, it’s often viewed as a challenging read, even for devout believers. Despite this, it holds profound significance for understanding the ancient Israelite worldview and their relationship with God. 

But who wrote the book of Leviticus and when was it written? In this article, we’ll delve into the origins of Leviticus, examining its content, its traditional attribution, and the critical scholarship that has reshaped our understanding of this ancient text. 

Finally, by exploring who wrote Leviticus, we hope to shed light on the rich and layered history behind this foundational book of the Bible.

If you’re fascinated by the complexities of biblical texts like Leviticus, don’t miss Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course “Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About the Exodus and Jewish Law.”

Explore famous stories such as Cain and Abel, Noah’s flood, and the 7-day creation. Are these accounts history, myth, or something in between? Discover how critical scholarship approaches these timeless narratives and enrich your understanding of the Bible’s earliest chapters.

The Book of Leviticus: A Brief Summary

Before we get into the “Who wrote Leviticus?” question, it’s essential to understand what the Book of Leviticus is about. Scholars often divide the book into three thematic sections: the sacrificial system, the manual of impurities, and the Day of Atonement.

Each one provides valuable insight into the religious practices and worldview of ancient Israel, with a particular emphasis on holiness, ritual purity, and the relationship between humanity and God. 

The first section, which spans chapters 1 through 7, deals with the sacrificial system as it was (at least in theory) practiced in the Jerusalem Temple. Sacrifices in Leviticus fall into five categories. The first, introduced in Chapter 1, is “the burnt offering or whole offering” (Hebrew: “olah”), in which the entire sacrifice is burned as a pleasing aroma to God.

Chapter 2 introduces the “grain offering” (“minhah”), which could take various forms, such as baked or ground grains, and remains significant in Judaism today as the name for afternoon prayers. In chapter 3, we encounter the “shalom offering,” often translated as the “peace offering” or “communion sacrifice,” symbolizing thanksgiving or fellowship with God.

The “sin offering” or “purification offering” (chapter 4) and the “guilt offering” or “reparation offering” (chapter 5) address unintentional sins, providing a means for atonement and reconciliation. Notably, intentional sins are only addressed later in the ritual for the Day of Atonement.

Chapters 6 and 7 further elaborate on these sacrificial instructions, detailing the roles and responsibilities of the priests in performing the rituals and specifying how the portions of certain offerings are to be distributed between the priests and the altar.

In his Commentary on Leviticus, Jacob Milgrom notes: 

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The second section, known as the Manual of Impurities, spans chapters 10 to 15. This section explores the ancient concept of ritual purity, which differs significantly from moral or ethical purity. Impurity was seen as an aesthetic or ceremonial state rather than an inherently evil quality. 

The Day of Atonement, or Yom Kippur, lies at the heart of Leviticus in chapters 16 and 17. “The Hebrew term,” J. R. Porter notes, “means literally ‘day of expiations’ and this well describes its character, for what we have in this chapter is a combination of a number of separate rites designed to secure the complete purity of the sanctuary and the nation.” 

This solemn ritual represents a communal effort to atone for intentional sins and cleanse the sanctuary of impurities accumulated throughout the year. The high priest played a central role, performing elaborate rituals, including the symbolic transfer of sins onto a scapegoat released into the wilderness.

Taken as a whole, Leviticus presents a detailed framework for living by divine will, rooted in the cultural and religious practices of ancient Israel. In his article, Erich Zenger quotes the German scholar Martin Noth who explains the historical and cultural significance of Leviticus:

Understanding themes and the significance of Leviticus provides an important context as we continue with our exploration into the "Who wrote Leviticus?" question. Let's begin by presenting traditional theory rooted in the religious beliefs of both Judaism and Christianity.

Who Wrote Leviticus in the Bible? Traditional Attribution

The authorship of Leviticus is inseparable from the broader question concerning the composition of the Pentateuch — the first five books of the Torah. For centuries, Jewish tradition has firmly held that Moses wrote the entire Pentateuch, including Leviticus. 

According to the same tradition, he lived during the 13th or 15th century B.C.E. and was closely associated with the famous parting of the Red Sea. 

This belief became a cornerstone of Jewish and Christian religions, rooted in tradition and perpetuated through scriptural interpretations. But who really wrote Leviticus? Exploring this question reveals a fascinating interplay between faith, tradition, and scholarly inquiry.

The first point to note is the lack of internal evidence supporting Mosaic authorship. The Book of Leviticus itself never claims to be written by Moses. Joel Baden, in his book The Composition of the Pentateuch, succinctly explains:

This absence of explicit attribution raises questions about how and why Moses became credited as the author of Leviticus.

In Judaism, the attribution to Moses is deeply embedded in rabbinic tradition, which emerged in the late antique period. The Talmud, for instance, asserts that Moses wrote not only the Pentateuch but also other portions of scripture, stating: “Moses wrote his book and the Balaam pericope and Job. Joshua wrote his book and eight verses of the Torah.”

These eight verses, from Deuteronomy 34:5-12, describe Moses’ death and burial — an obvious challenge to Mosaic authorship. Yet, for centuries, this explanation sufficed to uphold the attribution, blending faith with creative interpretative flexibility.

For early Christians, Moses' authorship was equally important. Seeing Jesus as the fulfillment of the Mosaic law, the Church embraced the belief that Moses had written the Pentateuch. This view dominated throughout the Middle Ages, with only a few dissenting voices raising questions about inconsistencies.

Church Fathers such as Jerome noted anomalies within the text, and the Jewish commentator Ibn Ezra observed potential later additions to the Pentateuch. However, these observations were largely seen as minor quirks that didn’t undermine the overall framework of Mosaic authorship.

The Renaissance and Enlightenment marked a turning point. As scholars began to emphasize reason and textual analysis, the traditional attribution to Moses started to crumble. One of the earliest critics of Mosaic authorship was the Catholic theologian and textual critic Richard Simon.

In his Histoire critique du Vieux Testament (Critical History of the Old Testament) Simon noted:

The Catholic Church was, predictably, less than thrilled. In an act of impressive zeal, they destroyed over 1,300 copies of Simon’s work, proving that challenging tradition could come at a high cost — even in the form of a metaphorical bonfire.

Despite the Church’s efforts to suppress Simon’s ideas, a Pandora’s box had been opened. Enlightenment scholars, with their focus on critical thinking and textual analysis, found the traditional attribution increasingly difficult to sustain.

Today, only conservative (evangelical) scholars hold to the traditional attribution of Leviticus. Roland Kenneth Harrison, for instance, asserts:

However, most critical scholars, including R. Norman Whybray, reject the notion that Moses directly authored the Pentateuch, including Leviticus. But if Moses wasn’t the author, who wrote Leviticus? And what evidence has led scholars to this conclusion? These questions lead us into the next chapter of our exploration.

Who Wrote Leviticus? Scholarly Insights

The lack of internal evidence for Mosaic authorship of Leviticus shouldn’t surprise us. As German scholar Erhard S. Gerstenberger notes in Das dritte Buch Mose: Leviticus (The Third Book of Moses: Leviticus)

This cultural shift leaves us asking, who wrote Leviticus? If not Moses, then who is, in Gerstenberger’s words, the “intellectual owner” of this text?

One of the most influential frameworks for addressing this question is the Documentary Hypothesis, pioneered by Julius Wellhausen in the 19th century. Wellhausen proposed that the Pentateuch, including Leviticus, is a composite text derived from four distinct sources: the Yahwist (J), the Elohist (E), the Deuteronomist (D), and the Priestly source (P).

According to this hypothesis, these sources were compiled over centuries by multiple authors and editors, each contributing unique terminology, theology, and narrative styles. Leviticus is primarily attributed to the Priestly source, characterized by its detailed focus on rituals, laws, and the role of the priesthood.

Several arguments support the Documentary Hypothesis. For instance, the Pentateuch contains numerous “doublets” — stories or laws repeated with slight variations. These duplications suggest multiple versions of the same traditions woven together. 

Contradictions within the text further reinforce the idea of composite authorship. For example, Leviticus 1:1 states that God called to Moses from the Tent of Meeting, a location associated with the period after the Sinaitic revelation. In contrast, other verses, such as Leviticus 7:37-38, 25:1, 26:46, and 27:34, explicitly attribute certain instructions to Sinai itself.

Baruch A. Levine, in his Commentary on Leviticus, emphasizes the theological and doctrinal stakes of these textual contradictions:

Moreover, variations in terminology, such as the distinct uses of the divine names Yahweh and Elohim, reflect different theological perspectives among the sources. These discrepancies make it nearly impossible to attribute the Pentateuch, including Leviticus, to a single author.

Additionally, certain elements in Leviticus reflect historical realities that postdate the time of Moses. For example, the detailed sacrificial instructions and the centralized focus on the Temple suggest a context in which the Jerusalem Temple was already established as the religious center. 

While the Documentary Hypothesis dismantled the notion of the Pentateuch as a unified work, it also undermined the historicity of its traditional author, Moses. The idea of a single, authoritative author gave way to a more complex picture of a text shaped by multiple hands across centuries.

As J. R. Porter explains:

This conclusion reflects a growing scholarly consensus: Leviticus, like the rest of the Pentateuch, is a patchwork of sources rather than the product of one author.

More recently, some aspects of the classical Documentary Hypothesis have been challenged. Scholars like John Van Seters have argued for a later dating of the Yahwist (J) source, placing it in the 6th century B.C.E, during or after the Babylonian Exile. Van Seters notes:

These revisions suggest that the composition of the Pentateuch may have been even more protracted and influenced by historical circumstances than Wellhausen initially proposed. However, these debates about nuances in dating and composition don’t revive the idea of Moses as the author.

Whatever complexities scholars uncover, one thing is clear: the traditional attribution of Leviticus to Moses has been almost universally rejected. The evidence for composite authorship is overwhelming, and the book is best understood as the product of priestly circles seeking to codify and preserve ritual practices over time.

So, who wrote Leviticus, and when was it written? The answer lies not with Moses, but with a tradition of priestly scribes, editors, and compilers who shaped the text over generations. When was the Book of Leviticus composed in the form we know today? According to Porter: 

However, other scholars are more cautious. In his book The Introduction to the Pentateuch, R. Norman Whybray concludes:

Finally, Baruch A. Levine notes:

Looking back on my first encounter with the Book of Leviticus in high school, I now realize how much my understanding has evolved. 

What seemed at the time like a straightforward text with immutable moral directives has revealed itself to be far more intricate and layered. The question “Who wrote Leviticus?” isn’t simply a matter of assigning a name to a book but an exploration into how ancient communities preserved, adapted, and transmitted their traditions. 

Through our exploration, we have seen how traditional views, rooted in faith, attribute the authorship of Leviticus to Moses. Yet, critical scholarship has offered a more nuanced perspective, identifying the text as a composite work shaped by multiple authors and priestly circles over centuries.

While the exact details of who wrote Leviticus may never be fully resolved, the insights gained from both tradition and critical inquiry enrich our understanding of this foundational text and its place within the larger tapestry of the Pentateuch.

And yet, I can’t help but wish history were a little more forthcoming — offering us a signed scroll or a footnote or two. Alas, history often whispers when we want it to shout, leaving us to piece together its fragments with equal measures of curiosity and frustration. At times, I wonder if I should have chosen a different professional path. Well, maybe not!

Plagues of Egypt: List of All 10 Plagues In Order (WITH VERSES)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The story of the Ten Plagues of Egypt, chronicled in the Book of Exodus, is one of the most iconic and dramatic episodes in biblical literature. These cataclysmic events unfold as the God of Israel, through the prophet Moses and his brother Aaron, unleashes a series of divine punishments upon Egypt.

In this article, I’ll first provide a table listing the Ten Plagues of Egypt in order. Then I’ll give a short explanation of each one, culminating in a discussion of whether scholars believe this story is historical.

Summary of the 10 Plagues of Egypt

The Plagues of Egypt are part of the liberation story of the Book of Exodus. The God of Israel sends ten catastrophes upon Egypt to persuade the Pharaoh to liberate the Israelites who have long been enslaved there. The story of the Ten Plagues starts in Exodus 7 and goes through Exodus 12, where God inflicts the last and arguably most devastating plague. One of the implications of this story is that the God of Israel is asserting his power over the Egyptian gods, which is why in Exodus 7:5 he says, "The Egyptians shall know that I am the LORD."

Before we get to a more detailed discussion of the Plagues of Egypt in order, here is a table with some brief information about them:

The Plagues of Egypt Explained

What happened during each of these events? Here are the 10 plagues of Egypt explained, including the effects they had on the land and its inhabitants.

1. Nile Turns to Blood

In the first plague, Moses approaches the Nile, along with his brother Aaron. At God’s instruction, Aaron strikes the water with his staff, and it instantly changes to blood. All the fish in the river die and the river emits a noxious smell. No one can drink from the Nile, and all the other bodies of water in Egypt turn to blood as well.  Every Egyptian and all the animals of Egypt suffer great thirst for a week as a result.

Despite all this horror, Pharaoh asks his own magicians to do the same trick. They succeed, creating a second layer of blood on the water. Because of this, Pharaoh is not impressed and ignores Moses and Aaron, his heart remaining hardened toward the idea of liberating the Israelites.

2. Frogs

God causes huge numbers of frogs to come out of the no-longer-bloody Nile. There are so many that they cover all the land, even invading people’s houses. Pharaoh’s magicians are once again able to replicate this trick, however, bringing on another wave of frogs. The frogs stay around for three days and then they all die. The Egyptians have to get rid of the dead frogs, whose corpses make the land stink for a long time. However, Pharaoh still doesn’t let the Israelites go free.

3. Lice

God tells Aaron to raise his staff and strike the dust of the ground which instantly turns into lice (some translations say gnats — the Hebrew word could mean either). They cover the land and oppress the people and animals of Egypt. However, Pharaoh still adamantly refuses Moses’ demands.

4. Flies or Wild Beasts

This plague causes either swarms of flies to cover everything or huge numbers of wild beasts to invade every inch of land, including houses and other buildings. It all depends on the translations, but how could they be so different?

This one needs a bit of explanation. The Old Testament Hebrew word used for this plague is ‘arov. According to Gary Rendsburg, the root of this word means “to mix,” making its literal meaning “mixture.” But a mixture of what?

Jewish scholars have debated about this for centuries. In a document written in the 3rd or 4th century CE called the Haggadah — a retelling of the story which is read aloud during the Passover Seder meal — it says there was a plague of wild beasts. This is clear from the many illustrations accompanying Haggadah copies which show lions and other animals. However, The New Jewish Publication Society’s translation of the Hebrew Bible identifies the fourth plague as “swarms of insects.” Which translation is correct? (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!)

Rendsburg points out that the best answer comes from a scholar and rabbi named Umberto Cassuto. In his commentary on Exodus, Cassuto notes that the plagues come in sets of two. Plagues 1-2 are related to the Nile; plagues 5–6, are both diseases; plagues 7–8, hail and locusts, both come from the sky and destroy the crops; and plagues 9–10 share the feature of darkness. For this reason, Cassuto says that the fourth plague must share something in common with the third plague, lice. Since lice have more in common with flies than wild beasts, Cassuto says the plague should be understood as a “mixture” — ‘arov —  or swarm of insects.

By the way, Pharaoh doesn’t change his mind at this point and still refuses to let the Israelites go.

5. Pestilence

This plague afflicts all the livestock with fatal diseases. The beasts of the Israelites, however, remain healthy and untouched. Does this change Pharaoh’s mind? No, his heart remains hardened.

6. Boils

God tells Aaron to take handfuls of soot and throw them into the air in front of Pharaoh. The soot multiplies into dust, covering everything and everyone and causing boils on the skin of both humans and animals throughout Egypt. Pharaoh, of course, remains unmoved.

7. Thunder, Hail, and Lightning

Moses lifts his staff to the sky and God sends a massive storm of thunder, hail, and lightning, leaving Egypt in ruins. Anything out in the fields, including people, animals, plants, and even trees, is destroyed.

This time, Pharaoh summons Moses and begs him to stop the storm, swearing that he will let the Israelites go. Moses readily agrees, but once the storm ceases, Pharaoh changes his mind and goes back to his hard-hearted ways.

8. Locusts

Now God sends a massive swarm of locusts to cover the land, devouring what few crops remain after the hailstorm. The locusts also fill houses and every other building. Pharaoh once again begs for it to stop and swears to Moses he’ll let the people go. But as soon as the plague ends, he again refuses to free the Israelites.

9. Darkness for Three Days

Moses stretches his hand to the sky at God’s insistence and the entire land is instantly covered in darkness for three days. Exodus says the darkness was so complete that no one could see anything or leave their houses for fear of hurting themselves in the dark.

Pharaoh still doesn’t change his mind, but he does become furious, telling Moses that while he won’t let his people go, he never wants to see Moses again. Moses agrees to this.

10. Death of the Firstborn Sons

The tenth plague is God’s final, devastating blow against Egypt. The Israelites are told that the Angel of Death will come to each house in Egypt that night. Through Moses, God tells the Israelites to slaughter a lamb and paint their doorframes with the lamb’s blood so that the Angel will “pass over” that house and not kill anyone inside. They are also to eat only unleavened bread for seven days. This of course, is the story of Passover.

At midnight, God sends the Angel of Death who kills all firstborn sons in the land of Egypt. No Egyptian family escapes this fate, from the Pharaoh himself, down to the lowliest members of Egyptian society. The angel even kills all the firstborn males among the livestock. Exodus says anguished wails fill the night air.

Finally beaten, Pharaoh summons Moses and Aaron and says, "Arise, go out from among my people, both you and the children of Israel; and go, serve the Lord as you have said.” Having endured an enormous amount of misery at the hands of Israel’s God, Pharaoh finally agrees to liberate the people of Israel.

Historical Criticism of the 10 Plagues

What do historians say about Moses’ plagues caused by God? Moses’ story begins in Exodus. However, in Biblical History and Israel’s Past, Megan Moore and Brad Kelle note that the book of Exodus is not a historical account. Scholars know the Israelites actually emerged as a subset of the Canaanite people. While a small number may have lived in Egypt at one time, there was never a massive Exodus. This underlying fact makes the historicity of the Ten Plagues of Egypt highly doubtful as well.

In the Jewish Study Bible, Jeffrey Tigay notes that while there have been many attempts to explain the plagues as natural phenomena, the vast majority of biblical scholars have dismissed these explanations. The timing of the plagues, their quick progression, and the fact that Moses controls them indicates that they are supernatural. While something supernatural may have happened, it is far beyond the scope of historical analysis to confirm or deny this.

Some have claimed that the Passover festival, which celebrates how God allowed the firstborn sons of Israel to live while those of Egypt all died, is evidence that the tenth plague must have actually happened. However, in Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation, Bernard Levinson shows that the practice of painting blood on the doorframe of a house actually may have originated earlier than Exodus as an apotropaic rite, that is, a ritual to ward off evil, meant to prevent demonic forces from entering a house.

A further theory. written by Tamara Prosic in The Development and Symbolism of Passover, is that once the Israelites wrote the Priestly Code — rules and regulations for Jewish priests —, the apotropaic rite of painting the doorframe became mixed with a Canaanite agricultural festival involving a ceremony of unleavened bread. In other words, while there is no absolute certainty about Passover’s origins, it doesn’t necessarily require a supernatural explanation.

Conclusion

While scholars have determined that the story of the Plagues of Egypt is not historical, it has long provided Jews and Christians with a level of meaning superseding factual history. For one thing, the narrative contributed to the formation of Jewish identity as related to their God. It showed, for example, that the Israelites were so important to God that he would harm other nations if necessary to protect Israel.

Despite the fact that historians will never be able to confirm these supernatural events, the story of the 10 Plagues of Egypt is a literary achievement, showing us how the author of Exodus viewed his people’s place in the world. While not yet monotheistic (he did, after all, believe that Egypt’s gods existed), this author clearly believed that the God of Israel was the superior being.

Scholars say Exodus was written after the Israelites’ Babylonian and Persian exiles. It was, therefore, an attempt to solidify Israelite identity, based both on earlier stories and literary inventions. These stories argued that no matter what difficulties they faced, the people of Israel would always be cared for by their God.

YHWH: Meaning and Etymology of the Tetragrammaton

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

In the iconic biblical tale of the burning bush from Exodus 3, Moses stands before a mysterious presence that speaks to him, revealing itself with a divine name that has resonated through millennia of religious and scholarly inquiry: YHWH (also written as Yahweh). When written in Hebrew, this name is known as the Tetragrammaton.

In this article, I’ll examine Yahweh’s meaning in Hebrew, discuss debates about its pronunciation, investigate its historical origins, and consider the evolving reverence associated with YHWH, shedding light on its enduring theological and cultural impact.

Yahweh Meaning and Etymology

The name “Yahweh” or YHWH is called the Tetragrammaton — Greek for “four letters” — because it consists of only four Hebrew letters: yodh, he, waw, and he. That’s why it’s usually transliterated as YHWH. This isn’t an abbreviation, though.

The Hebrew language, until at least the 7th century CE, contained no written vowels (after that, points indicating vowel sounds were added underneath the letters). Literate Hebrew speakers in ancient times simply knew which vowel sounds went with which combinations of consonant sounds.

This brings us to the pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton. Since there were no vowel sounds written, how did people pronounce the name in ancient Hebrew? I should note here that, for centuries, the practice in Judaism has been not to vocalize the name at all, an indication of the name’s holiness. More on this later.

In his translation and commentary on the Hebrew Bible, Robert Alter notes that the broad scholarly consensus says the original pronunciation of the name was “YAH-weh.” There are differing opinions, however. (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!) In The Invention of God, Thomas Römer claims the Tetragrammaton would have been pronounced 'Yahô' or 'Yahû. Max Reisel, on the other hand, argues in The Mysterious Name of Y.H.W.H that it would have been pronounced YeHūàH.

It was certain Christian groups who began pronouncing the name as “Jehovah.” In his commentary on Genesis, R.R. Reno says this happened because in the Middle Ages, Jewish scholars inserted indications of vowel sounds — the “points” I mentioned above — into the Hebrew Bible, indicating the Tetragrammaton should be pronounced “Adonai.” By then, the Jewish practice was never to pronounce the name of Yahweh, substituting “Adonai” or another word in its place. However, non-Jews then mistakenly combined the vowels of “Adonai” with the consonants of the Tetragrammaton, accidentally inventing the name "Jehovah."

But what is the meaning of Yahweh in Hebrew? In terms of its etymological origins, Anne Marie Kitz argues that the word may come from a verb that means "to be,""to exist," "to bring into being," or "to occur." This makes sense given the name God tells Moses his name in Exodus 3:14: ’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye. Here, the word ’ehye directly relates to the word Yahweh, meaning “I am”. The Hebrew phrase can be translated as either “I am who I am,” or “I will be what I will be.”

While it is not the only name for God in the Hebrew Bible, YHWH is the one used most. Crawford Howell Toy and Ludwig Blau note that it is found 5,410 times in the Hebrew Bible. It occurs in almost every single book, the only exceptions being Ecclesiastes, Esther, and the Song of Songs.

The History of YHWH

It turns out that a god named YHWH may have begun life well before the formation of Israel. However, in his book Yahweh Before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name, Daniel Fleming says that while there are many theories, there is almost no broad scholarly consensus on the origins of the Israelite god Yahweh.

Fleming notes that one of the earliest non-Biblical references to Yahweh is from an inscription from the king of Moab around 840 BCE. While this is before most of the Hebrew Bible was written, scholars know its authors penned some of the oldest sections of it during that era. Since there are so few allusions to YHWH outside the Bible, scholars have long theorized about this god’s origins.

One possibility explaining YHWH’s origins is called the Midianite Hypothesis. This theory says that, rather than originating in Canaan, as many scholars have assumed, the cult of YHWH began just south of the Levant in the northwest Arabian Peninsula on the Red Sea, an area the Hebrew Bible calls "Midian." This theory, a product of 19th and 20th-century biblical scholars, states that YHWH originally was a Midianite storm-deity who eventually made his way north to the earliest Canaanites, some of whom became known as Israelites.

The Midianite Hypothesis is still considered plausible by many. However, in The Religion of Ancient Israel, Patrick Miller theorizes that YHWH is a short form of ˀel ḏū yahwī ṣabaˀôt, "El who creates the hosts.” El was another name for God used in the Hebrew Bible and known originally as the Canaanite high god. This would certainly make some sense since we know the Israelites were a subset of Canaanites.

The oldest reference to Yahweh is from an Egyptian inscription from sometime between 1390 and 1352 BCE that says, "YHWA (in) the Land of the Shasu." In this case, “YHWA” is a place name where the Shasu, a nomadic people group from Midian and Edom in northern Arabia, lived. While it’s tempting to think this is the origin of YHWH, Fleming points out that it’s uncertain whether a relationship really exists between the place name YHWA and name YHWH. Furthermore, while there is considerable scholarly support for this theory, no one has yet been able to explain how the name might have migrated north to Canaan.

When and Why Did Jews Stop Saying the Tetragrammaton Aloud?

Even in modern synagogues today, you will never hear the name “YHWH.” Instead, if someone reads aloud from the Hebrew Bible, they will substitute one of several acceptable words for the name of God, usually Hashem (English: “The Name”), Adonai (English: Lord), or Elohim (English: God). Even in English, Jewish texts will often omit a letter from the word “God,” writing the divine name as “G_d.” Scholars agree that the name YHWH was originally pronounced aloud so when did this practice begin and why?

Stephen Harris says in Understanding the Bible: A Reader's Introduction, that it likely started in the 3rd century BCE, probably as a way to ensure that people would always maintain reverence for God and God’s name. This may explain, for example, why one of the Ten Commandments from Exodus 20 says “You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name.”

Interestingly, the Septuagint — the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible used by the New Testament’s authors —  usually translates the Tetragrammaton with the Greek word Kurios (English: Lord), a likely reference to the way Jews would say “Adonai” or “Lord” for the Tetragrammaton. In Exodus 3:14, however, rather than using a special word for God’s name, the Greek text merely uses the typical phrase for “I am” (Greek: ego eimi) instead of making it a title.

The name “YHWH” never appears in the New Testament either. But apologists have opined that all the “I am” sayings of Jesus in the Gospel of John refer to God based on Yahweh’s meaning, indicating Jesus is calling himself God. Is this accurate? Let’s look into this question.

Does Jesus Call Himself YHWH?

If you’re familiar with the Gospel of John, you know that Jesus’ teachings in that book differ greatly from those in the Synoptic Gospels. Almost all Jesus’ teachings in John are about who he is, usually explained in a list of metaphors by Jesus: “I am the Bread of Life,” “I am the Good Shepherd,” “I am the True Vine,” etc.

Some have pointed out that using “I am” over and over (46 times in John!) indicates Jesus is referring to God’s name given to Moses: I Am Who I Am. In John 8:58, Jesus says “Very truly, I tell you, before Abraham was, I am.” This certainly seems to be a claim that Jesus existed before Abraham and that he is, therefore, God. In fact, his hearers clearly believe this and want to stone him for blasphemy.

However, there is a slight twist to this rhetoric if you understand the viewpoint of John’s Gospel. As Bart Ehrman points out, John is the only Gospel that is not apocalyptic, as such. For John, as Ehrman says, “Eternal life in this Gospel does not come at the end of time… Eternal life is here and now, for all who believe in Jesus.”

In this Gospel, Jesus never talks about the coming Kingdom, since all one needs to do is believe in him now to have eternal life instantly. Ehrman says that, unlike typical Jewish apocalyptic writings, John’s Gospel doesn’t talk about the evils of the world vs. the good of the coming world. Instead, he divides the universe spatially into those from above who are saved and those from below who are condemned. The way to belong to the world from above, then, is simply to believe in Jesus who came from above.

What’s important, then, in John is not that Jesus IS YHWH, but that Jesus, as a lesser divine being, came from the world above — God’s world. That’s what he is indicating in those “I am” statements. Jesus is certainly divine, (perhaps) even equal with God. However, he is not YHWH or God the Father, but rather an agent of YHWH, doing God’s work in the world.

Conclusion

The etymology of YHWH is mysterious. Some claim that Yahweh in Hebrew derives from a verb meaning “to be” or “to bring into being,” but this is far from certain. While many Christian groups mispronounced it as Jehovah, most scholars agree its original pronunciation was “YAH-weh.”

Some scholars theorize it was originally the name of a storm-god from the southern Levant. Others believe it may have had an Egyptian origin, while still others assert it originated in Canaan, where the Israelites first emerged.

Sometime in the 3rd century BCE, Jews developed the practice of never pronouncing this divine name out of extreme reverence. Instead they used substitute words like “Adonai” or “Hashem” to refer to God without uttering the powerful divine name.

While the “I am” sayings in John certainly indicate that Jesus is divine, his divinity is relative. As we see in the prologue (“In the beginning was the Word”), Jesus is the agent sent forth to create the world by YHWH. In other words, Jesus acts for YHWH but is not YHWH.

10 Commandments: List of All Ten Commandments in the Bible (In Order with Verses)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Whenever the 10 Commandments are mentioned, I immediately think of Charlton Heston’s iconic portrayal of Moses in the classic film "The Ten Commandments" Even though some of my friends find the movie too long, it remains one of the most iconic religious films. Above all, the movie vividly demonstrates the profound influence Judaism and Christianity have had on our culture.

In this article, we’ll explore the historical and cultural significance of the 10 Commandments. Our journey will take us through the origins and context of these ancient laws, exploring their place in the Bible and their role in shaping moral and ethical standards in various religious traditions. 

We’ll begin with a historical overview, outlining where the 10 Commandments are found in the Bible and discussing their significance within the Jewish covenant with God. This section will also touch on the historical context of their writing, including when Exodus and Deuteronomy were likely composed. 

Following this, we’ll present the 10 Commandments in order as they appear in different biblical versions, starting with the longer (original) form as found in Exodus and Deuteronomy, but also including the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) and the King James Version (KJV).

By the end of this article, you’ll have a comprehensive understanding of the 10 Commandments, not just as religious texts, but as foundational elements that have influenced laws, ethics, and societal norms across various cultures throughout history. 

However, before we begin, I have to ask you something! Are you interested in diving deeper into the mysteries of Moses and the Exodus? Join Dr. Bart D. Ehrman in his online course, “Finding Moses - What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law”, and explore whether Moses was a historical figure or a legendary creation. Discover the evidence behind these timeless questions—fact or fiction? Sign up now!

The 10 Commandments in the Bible: Historical Context

The 10 Commandments, also known as the Decalogue (which is, by the way, a more suitable term), have long held an elevated status in Judaism and Christianity. 

These commandments of God are found in two main and slightly different versions: the first in Exodus 20:2-17, and the second in Deuteronomy 5:6-21. So, there are two different sets of verses where the 10 commandments are found. Additionally, there is a so-called “Ritual Decalogue” in Exodus 34 which is substantially different. 

While we’ll analyze those differences shortly, it's essential first to look at some basic historical context to better understand the 10 Commandments in the Bible.

To grasp their initial meaning, we must journey back to the ancient world and explore the Jewish tradition regarding their relationship and covenant with God. In the Hebrew Bible, a covenant is fundamentally a contract - a legal agreement between parties. 

The Hebrew term for "covenant-making" is "c'rat berit," which literally means "to cut a covenant," akin to the English idiom "to cut a deal." In essence, the covenant is viewed primarily as a legal document.

In his "Essays on Old Testament History and Religion," Albrecht Alt argued that there were two forms of law in ancient times: conditional and apodictic law. The former is casuistic, characterized by an "if/then" pattern, similar to the Code of Hammurabi. It specifies that if a person does "X," then "Y" will be the consequence, often including detailed sub-cases and qualifications.

In contrast, absolute or apodictic law is an unconditional statement of a prohibition or command, such as "You shall not murder." 

As shown in the excellent book "Ancient Near Eastern Text Related to the Old Testament”, the apodictic law as a form isn't unknown in other ancient Near Eastern cultures (e.g., in the Neo-Babylonian laws), but it seems to be most characteristic of Israel. In other words: There is much more of it in our collections of laws in the Hebrew Bible than elsewhere.

However, its directives are couched in the masculine singular. So, it seems to be addressing Israelite males as the legal subjects in the community - an aspect that shouldn't surprise us considering that the societies in the ancient world were, above all, patriarchal. 

In any case, these commandments set forth some of God's most basic and unconditional covenant demands. It’s worth noting that the division into ten is somewhat idealized rather than precise, as there are about 13 separate statements in what we today call the 10 Commandments.

Furthermore, these commandments are numbered differently by Jews and Christians, and even within the Christian community, different denominations have varied numbering systems—as we’ll see later in this article.

10 Commandments: The Date of Composition

Regarding their composition date, we encounter a significant clash between traditional religious interpretations and modern scholarly views. Traditionally, it’s believed that God gave the 10 Commandments from Mount Sinai, amidst smoke, earthquakes, and trumpet blasts, to emphasize their importance. 

Moses recorded God's words in Exodus 20 and recounted the event in Deuteronomy 5. This view assumes that Moses authored the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible), which includes Exodus and Deuteronomy. 

However, critical scholars, first led by Julius Welhausen, have challenged these claims and proposed that four different sources (the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist, and the Priestly source) contributed to the Pentateuch’s creation. 

Additionally, recent scholarship has cast even greater doubt on the quest for the Pentateuch's authors. In "The Introduction to the Pentateuch”, R. Norman Whybray asserts: “There is at the present moment no consensus whatever about when, why, how, and through whom the Pentateuch reached its present form, and opinions about the dates of composition of its various parts differ by more than five hundred years.”

Regarding the date of the 10 Commandments' composition specifically, no secure answers exist. One intriguing hypothesis, favored by some scholars, suggests they were composed several hundred years after Moses allegedly lived.

In his excellent study "Etched in Stone: The Emergence of the Decalogue”, David H. Aaron notes: "The Decalogue is a late literary creation, written by a group of postexilic authors (i.e., writers working not before the middle of the sixth century B.C.E. and perhaps as late as the fifth century B.C.E.). The Decalogue passages are based upon earlier attempts to create a covenant scene that would serve to unite the Israelite people at a time of political and social discord."

By understanding this historical and cultural context, we can better appreciate the profound significance of the 10 Commandments in the Bible. Additionally, this sets the stage for a closer look at the 10 commandments in order. 

The 10 Commandments in the Bible: Text and Versions

We'll start by examining the two versions of the 10 commandments as they appear in the Hebrew Bible, using the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) translation. The first comes from Exodus 20:2-17, and the second from Deuteronomy 5:6-21.

A List of the 10 Commandments in the NRSV (Exodus 20:2-17)

According to Jewish tradition, Moses repeated the 10 commandments after 40 years in the desert.

More precisely, he gathered the people of Israel in Moab and gave them a farewell speech. One of the first things Moses did was to repeat the 10 Commandments - but with a few small differences. Let’s take a closer look at them!

10 Commandments in Order in the NRSV (Deuteronomy 5:6-21)

From the comparative perspective, the biggest difference between these two versions (Exodus and Deuteronomy) relates to the explanation of the reason behind the weekly day of rest. Perhaps, a table would make a comparison easier. Let’s take a look!

How should we understand these differences? As it turns out, these two versions of the 10 Commandments provide distinct reasons for observing the weekly Sabbath. In Exodus, the Sabbath is a recognition of God as the Creator: God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh, so those who worship Him should follow this pattern.

In contrast, Deuteronomy emphasizes the liberation from slavery in Egypt: just as God gave the Israelites rest from their bondage, they must also rest and allow rest for all who work for them. This shift highlights a moral imperative to emulate God's mercy and care for those who labor.

Essentially, these differences are the consequence of the unique social, and cultural concerns of each book. As Robert Goldenberg notes in The Origins of Judaism: “Their combination once again presents a mixture of themes drawn from the contemplation of nature and from the study of the nation’s history. The widespread appearance of such mixtures is a distinguishing characteristic of Biblical literature.”

Having outlined the two versions as they appear in the NRSV translation and explained their main differences, we’ll now provide the 10 commandments list from Exodus as it appears in the King James Bible (KJV).

A List of the 10 Commandments in the KJV (Exodus 20:2-17)

The King James Bible is one of the most influential and widely read translations of the Bible in the English-speaking world. Commissioned in 1604 by King James I of England and first published in 1611, it’s known for its prose and literary complexity. 

After presenting the list of the 10 commandments in order as they appear in the KJV, we’ll look at minor but interesting differences in numbering between two important Christian denominations.

10 Commandments in order: Catholic and Lutheran Numbering

The Catholic Church is the biggest Christian denomination in the world. It was the major force throughout the history of the Western world - especially during the Middle Ages when the majority of educated people came from the Catholic clergy and the Church was in charge of education. 

Lutherans, on the other hand, are followers of Martin Luther - a 16th-century German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the practices (e.g. sacramental system) and doctrines (e.g. Pope’s authority) of the Catholic Church. Luther’s public ministry sparked a movement that led to the formation of Lutheranism.

To make it easier, we’ve decided to present the divisions of the 10 commandments side-by-side in the short form. Let’s take a look! 

In the Catholic tradition, the 10 Commandments are derived from the Bible but follow the Augustinian division. Lutherans, on the other hand, follow the division established by Martin Luther reversing the ninth and tenth commandments thus following closer to the order in Exodus 20.

Having explored the historical context, different versions, and numberings of the 10 commandments, we’ll now turn to a brief analysis of these profound legal provisions that shaped the Western world in many ways. 

10 Commandments in the Bible: A Closer Look

The first statements (one through four) focus on Israel's relationship with God. These commandments require Israel to be exclusively faithful to God, avoid bowing down to any manmade image, and refrain from misusing God's name (see below).

Furthermore, Israel is to honor God's Sabbath day and respect parental authority, which can be seen as an extension of God's authority. The remaining commandments address Israel's interactions with others, prohibiting murder, adultery, robbery, false testimony, and covetousness. Let's take a closer look at some of the 10 commandments.

The first commandment ("I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt...") is crucial because none of the other commandments make sense without it. This commandment asserts that God is the source of these directives and emphasizes that God delivered the Jewish people from slavery. 

Therefore, Jews have an obligation to God - an obligation to live by the following nine commandments. According to some scholars, this commandment represents the beginnings of “ethical monotheism”, meaning that the ONE God (monotheism) is the source of ethics and morality.

The second commandment (“You shall not make for yourself an idol...") has an interesting aspect. When God says: “For I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God”, the term “jealous” (קַנָּא) comes from the context of human relationships. It’s the word one would use to describe a jealous lover – an image used throughout the Old Testament to describe God’s relationship with Israel (e.g. Deuteronomy 4:24).

The third commandment is perhaps the most misunderstood due to mistranslation. It explicitly states that God will not forgive anyone who violates it (Exodus 20:6-7). 

The commandment says, "You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God," but it’s often interpreted as forbidding the casual use of God's name. Even the standard Bible in my language (Croatian) translates the third commandment as “Do not take God’s name in vain”. 

However, this interpretation implies that while God might forgive violations of other commandments (e.g., dishonoring parents or stealing), He would never forgive someone for saying His name in vain. The issue, as noted, lies in the translation.

The Hebrew original says "Do not carry." It literally reads, "Do not carry the name of the Lord your God in vain." In his book Jewish Literacy, Joseph Telushkin explains: “The Hebrew, Lo tissa, literally means ‘You shall not carry (God’s name in vain)”; in other words, don’t use God as your justification for selfish causes.”

As our final example, the commandment "You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor” addresses the importance of honesty and integrity within the community. This commandment prohibits lying or giving false testimony, which could, of course, harm others and disrupt social harmony.

Summing up Conclusion

In examining the 10 Commandments in the Bible, we see profound cultural artifacts that have shaped moral and ethical standards across millennia. The commandments serve as cornerstones of ethical monotheism thus emphasizing the Israelites' exclusive relationship with God and outlining fundamental principles for social conduct. 

The differences in the Sabbath commandment between Exodus and Deuteronomy highlight the varied theological and historical contexts of these books. 

The distinctions in the Catholic and Lutheran numbering of the commandments further illustrate how religious traditions interpret and emphasize different aspects of these texts to align with their doctrinal teachings.

Finally, understanding the 10 Commandments within their historical and cultural frameworks enriches our appreciation of their significance. By exploring their origins, versions, and interpretations, we gain insight into their profound impact on religious, ethical, and legal systems throughout history. 

Mosaic Law: Definition, Purpose, and Examples

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

In contemporary society, the term "Law" often conjures images of legal institutions, secular authorities, and a framework of rules recognized and enforced by a country to regulate the actions of its members. In this context, laws are primarily seen as mechanisms of governance and order, with the imposition of penalties for those who deviate from established standards. 

However, to fully appreciate the concept of law in the ancient world, we must pivot our perspective from the secular to the sacred, particularly within the context of ancient Judaism. Unlike the primarily secular laws of modern states, ancient Jewish laws were deeply intertwined with religion and identity.

Among the myriad religious traditions that flourished in the ancient world, Judaism stood out for its profound emphasis on laws — not just as guidelines for moral and ritual conduct, but as foundational pillars of its very faith.

Central to this legal-religious framework is the "Mosaic Law," a comprehensive code believed to have been divinely revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai. Far more than a set of dos and don'ts, the Mosaic Law encapsulates a covenant between God and the Israelites, offering a detailed blueprint for worship, social justice, and personal conduct.

In this article, we aim to explore the intricate fabric of the Mosaic Law, delving into its definition, purpose, and the myriad examples that illuminate its role in ancient Judaism and its lasting influence on subsequent legal and ethical thought. 

Books in the Ancient Judaism: Backdrop for the Mosaic Law

In the vast panorama of ancient religious movements, it was predominantly within the realms of Christianity and Judaism that a substantial body of literature came into existence. The religions of Greece and Rome, by contrast, exhibited a relatively casual approach to textual documentation.  

While archaeological discoveries have unearthed ritual manuals, votive inscriptions, aretalogies, hymns, written oracles, and magical texts among these cultures, their scarcity and lack of association with specific cults render them peripheral rather than central to the religious practices of the time.

As highlighted by Harry Gamble, "No Greco-Roman religious group produced, used, or valued texts on a scale comparable to Judaism and Christianity."

For Judaism, texts held a paramount place as the bearers of the nation's authoritative cultural heritage, embodying religious, moral, social, and aesthetic values. Although not all Jewish traditions were codified in writing, it was the written word that garnered the highest reverence. 

By the 1st century C.E., the Torah and the Prophets had already secured a pivotal role in Jewish life—a status that Greek or Roman literature could not rival. The meticulous preservation, transcription, study, and interpretation of Jewish scriptures were undertaken by scribes who approached these texts with the utmost respect.

This reverence, however, didn’t preclude the occurrence of errors in transcription. For those intrigued by the complexities of textual transmission and its implications, Dr. Bart D. Ehrman offers a compelling exploration of this topic in his course, "The Scribal Corruption of the Scripture."

This deep-rooted veneration for the written word sets a distinctive backdrop for understanding the significance of the Mosaic Law within Jewish tradition.

As we delve further into its definition, purpose, and impact, it becomes clear how this emphasis on the written text not only shaped the religious identity of the Jewish people but also established clear directions for Jews to follow in every aspect of their lives. 

Mosaic Law: Definition and Historical Context

The Mosaic Law, foundational to the Jewish religion, is a comprehensive body of laws, commandments, and instructions that, according to Jewish belief, were given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. 

This extensive legal and ethical code is primarily documented in the Torah or Pentateuch. The law serves not only as a spiritual cornerstone but also as a guide for the moral, social, and religious life of the Jewish people. 

It delineates the covenant between God and the Israelites thus setting forth the terms of their relationship and the behaviors expected of God's chosen people.

To grasp the historical context and significance of the Mosaic Law, one must consider a pivotal belief in Judaism: the covenant between God and the Jewish people, established through Moses at Mount Sinai. 

This covenant is marked by a ceremony of divine proclamation and mutual agreement, vividly captured in Exodus 24:2-4. 

Here, Moses conveys God's laws to the Israelites, who unanimously commit to obeying them. This moment, a climactic event in the narrative of the Pentateuch, signifies the formal initiation of the laws, rules, and instructions that would govern the ancient Israelites' lives.

From a historical perspective, Mosaic Law encompasses various chunks of laws that were penned down over several centuries but were integrated into the Sinai narrative and Israel's wilderness sojourn. This editorial decision sought to imbue these laws with an aura of ancient sanctity and divine endorsement. 

Classification of the Mosaic Law in the Old Testament

According to Rabbi Simelai, the Mosaic law encompasses a broad spectrum of 613 commandments divided into 365 prohibitions (each corresponding to a day of the year) and 248 positive commands mirroring the number of bones in the human body.

As we traverse the Old Testament, the Mosaic Law unfolds in several distinct sections, each with its unique focus and form of law. These divisions help us appreciate the multifaceted nature of the law and its profound impact on daily and spiritual life in ancient Israel.

a) The Decalogue or Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-17)

The Ten Commandments, or "Ten Words" as referred to in the Hebrew Bible, form the bedrock of the Mosaic Law. German scholar Albrecht Alt identified two main types of law within biblical legal material: Conditional (casuistic) law and Absolute (apodictic) law. 

The Ten Commandments fall into the latter category, providing unconditional directives like "You shall not murder," without specifying conditions or consequences. This absolute form is more prevalent in the Mosaic Law than in other ancient Near Eastern legal traditions. 

Notably, the Decalogue was revealed directly to all of Israel, emphasizing basic, unconditional covenant demands, albeit primarily addressing Israelite males as the legal subjects. This leads us to the following question: What is the difference between the Mosaic Law and the 10 Commandments?

The Ten Commandments represent a core subset of the broader Mosaic Law, focusing on fundamental principles in absolute terms, while the Mosaic Law encompasses a wider array of regulations, including both absolute and conditional commands.

b) The Book of the Covenant (Exodus 21-23)

The next portion of the Mosaic law details "if/then" scenarios, embodying casuistic or conditional law. It covers a range of subjects from slavery to personal injury, resembling modern tort law in its approach to offenses and their redress.

The laws presented here are characterized by their seemingly random organization, touching upon slavery, personal injury, sorcery, oppression, and dietary laws. For example: “If you buy a Hebrew servant, he is to serve you for six years. But in the seventh year, he shall go free, without paying anything (Exodus 21:2).”

c) Instructions for the Tabernacle (Exodus 25-31; and 35-40)

The third aspect of the Mosaic Law is concerned with God’s instructions to Moses to build the Tabernacle - a sanctuary for the divine presence. These laws include detailed plans for its construction, furnishings, and the consecration of priests. It is written that God said to Moses: “Then have them make a sanctuary for me, and I will dwell among them (25:8).”

Furthermore, this section underscores the importance of sacred space in worship and includes a reminder of the Sabbath observance.

d) Sacrificial Laws (Leviticus 1-7)

These chapters outline various types of sacrifices, ranging from burnt offerings and grain offerings to sin and guilt offerings. Unlike the common perception that sacrifices were primarily about atonement for sins, they also included gifts of gratitude and devotion to God.

One such regulation specifies the requirements for a burnt offering: “If this offering is burnt offering from the herd, he is to offer a male without defect. He must present it at the entrance to the tent of meeting so that it will be acceptable to the Lord (1:3).”

e) Purity Laws (Leviticus 11-15)

This set of Mosaic laws deals with purity in daily life, culminating in the Day of Atonement rituals for cleansing both the Tabernacle and the people thus emphasizing the community’s collective sanctity.

One law from this section combined dietary restrictions with the prohibition against certain religious practices popular among the pagans: “Do not eat any meat with the blood still in it. Do not practice divination or seek omens. (19:26).”

f) Holiness Legislation (Leviticus 17-27)

Focusing on God’s holiness, these laws call upon the Israelites to live holy lives, reflecting God’s sanctity through their action and rituals. One such law is: “You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against the sons of your own people, but you shall love your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord.” (19:18)

g) Priestly Laws (Book of Numbers)

Scattered throughout Numbers, the final portion of the Mosaic law revisits themes from Exodus and Leviticus but also adds new details or expands on earlier instructions. They cover a variety of topics, including purity, property rights, Sabbath observance, and offerings. 

One law from this portion outlines how priests are to bless the people: “This is how you are to bless the Israelites. Say to them: 'The Lord bless you and keep you; the Lord make his face shine on you and be gracious to you; the Lord turn his face toward you and give you peace. (Numbers 6:23-26).

By categorizing the Mosaic Law into these sections, we gain a clearer understanding of its comprehensive nature and its guiding principles for both the spiritual and everyday lives of the Israelites. That brings us to the next issue: The Purpose of the Mosaic law for the ancient Jews. 

Mosaic Law and Its Purpose

The Mosaic Law, with its extensive array of regulations and commandments, might initially appear to modern eyes as a cumbersome list of dos and don'ts. However, adopting such a view would miss the profound significance these laws held in the ancient Jewish community.

Far from seeing them as a burden, the Jews of antiquity took great pride in their covenant with God. This covenant not only set them apart as a chosen people but also affirmed the presence of a supreme deity who was actively involved in their lives.

As Nicholas de Lange observes: "Obedience to the law is real freedom: the law of God, as interpreted by rabbinic tradition, is not constraint but freedom, whereas what most people take for freedom is actually a kind of slavery.”

This perspective reveals a deep-seated appreciation for the Mosaic Law as a source of liberation rather than limitation.

Contrary to the broad application of "law" in modern English, which typically refers to regulations governing human interactions to protect various social, economic, and personal interests, the majority of the commandments within the Torah lean heavily towards religious obligations.

In fact, as Bill T. Arnold notes, only about 10 percent of these commandments address what we would consider legal matters in the narrow sense of establishing rights and duties among individuals. 

The bulk of the Mosaic Law focuses on delineating the relationship between humans and God, establishing a framework within which this relationship operates. This distinction underscores the unique nature of the Mosaic Law as a blend of divine command and communal guidelines.

Moreover, the ancient Israelites' dedication to attributing the Mosaic Law to divine origin further elevates its importance within their society. Any deviation from these laws wasn’t merely a societal misstep but an offense against God Himself.

Therefore, in living according to these laws, the Israelites saw themselves as actively participating in a covenant relationship with God, making the Mosaic Law central to their communal, religious, and political existence.

Jesus, Paul, and the Mosaic Law

What did Jesus say about the Mosaic Law? Critical scholars largely concur that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet who anticipated the imminent arrival of God's Kingdom on Earth and voiced strong criticisms against the religious leaders in Jerusalem, especially those overseeing the Temple rituals. 

Yet, discerning Jesus' specific views on the Mosaic Law presents a challenging task. The Gospels, our primary sources for Jesus' teachings, were penned by early Christians several decades after Jesus’ death, each with their distinct perspectives and interpretations of the Law. 

It's essential to remember that these texts were shaped by the early Christian community, which might have selected, reshaped, or even introduced new teachings attributed to Jesus regarding the Law.

In the Gospel of Matthew, for instance, we find a poignant declaration attributed to Jesus: "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the prophets. I have come not to abolish but to fulfill (5:17)." This statement raises critical questions about its authenticity. Is this a genuine reflection of the historical Jesus' stance, or is it a perspective developed by Matthew's community? 

John P. Meier, to take one notable example, would opt in favor of the latter option noting how some scholars uncritically use this passage to claim that the historical Jesus preached the strict observance of the Mosaic Law. 

While these questions complicate our understanding, it's widely acknowledged among scholars that Jesus, deeply rooted in his Jewish heritage, engaged extensively with the Mosaic Law. His interactions, often depicted as debates with Pharisees and Sadducees, suggest a nuanced approach to the Law.

Contrary to the Pharisees, Jesus seemed to argue that meticulous adherence to the law's minutiae wasn’t paramount for righteousness before God. Similarly, he diverged from the Sadducees by downplaying the centrality of Temple worship and sacrifices as the sole means to maintain a relationship with God. 

As noted by Bart D. Ehrman, for Jesus, the essence of the Law was encapsulated in the commandments to love God wholeheartedly and to love one's neighbor as oneself (Mark 12:28-34). This focus on love as the core of the Law suggests a reinterpretation of Jewish legal traditions, emphasizing ethical conduct in preparation for Judgment Day and the establishment of the Kingdom of God. 

What did Paul say about the Mosaic Law? Paul was also deeply imbedded within the Jewish tradition, but his theology was primarily based on a profound religious experience that he interpreted as the encounter with the risen Jesus who commanded him to spread the good news to the Gentiles.

In his Epistle to Galatians, Paul advocates for the universal application of the gospel. For him, both Jews and Gentiles are justified or made righteous by having faith in the risen Jesus, not by getting circumcised and following the Law. As he notes: “If righteousness comes through the law, then Christ died for nothing (2:21).”

The purpose of the Mosaic Law, for Paul, was to guard people until faith comes. Living by the Law was meant to be a temporary solution until faith arrived. He notes: “Thus the law had become our guardian until Christ so that we could be declared righteous by faith (3:24).” 

However, we must be careful not to insert wrong (modern) distinctions into the world of Apostle Paul. His letter to Galatians was only addressed to the Gentiles who believed in Jesus. They shouldn’t get circumcised and become Jews because they are made righteous only by faith in the risen Jesus. 

As Bart Ehrman explains: “For Paul, Gentiles who underwent circumcision showed a complete and absolute misunderstanding of the meaning of the Gospel… It was an affront to God and a rejection of the justification by faith he has provided through Christ.”

But Paul probably thought that it was perfectly reasonable for Jewish believers in Jesus to circumcise their sons and to keep kosher - after all, they were Jews. It was assumed that they would keep observing the Mosaic Law. But they would also need to understand it was their faith in Jesus that made them righteous, not the observance of the Law. 

Summing up Conclusions

In conclusion, the journey through the Mosaic Law, from its inception to its enduring influence on religious thought and practice, unveils a complex tapestry of legal, ethical, and spiritual dimensions.

This exploration has illuminated how, within the ancient Jewish tradition, the Law served not merely as a set of regulations but as a profound expression of a covenantal relationship with God thus shaping the community's identity in various ways.

Furthermore, the reflections on the perspectives of Jesus and Paul regarding the Mosaic Law enrich our understanding of its significance and reinterpretation within the early Christian movement. This scholarly inquiry, grounded in historical and textual analysis, invites readers to appreciate the Mosaic Law's complexity and its pivotal role in shaping Judeo-Christian ethical and religious thought.

The Book of Genesis: Summary, Authorship, and Dating

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The Book of Genesis is one of the most fascinating books in the Bible. It’s the first biblical book in both the Jewish and Christian canons and describes the creation of the world and human beings, the origin of the Jewish people, and many other formative stories. What do scholars know about this book? In this article, I’ll dive into when it was written, what it’s about, and its significance in the canon.

By the way, the modern name of Genesis is from the same Greek word meaning “origin, creation, or generation.” The original Hebrew name of the book was Bereshit, which means “beginning” and is also the very first word of the book in Hebrew.

How is Genesis Structured?

Scholar John Van Seters says Genesis would have belonged to a literary genre called “antiquities” in the ancient world. This genre usually included the creation of a certain people as well as their prominent forebears, heroes, and some foundational genealogies. Most ancient Mediterranean civilizations composed such books to explain their own origins and establish or clarify their traditions.

Scholars divide Genesis into two main parts. The first is called “Primeval History” which goes from chapters 1-11. This includes the creation stories, the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden, Cain’s murder of Abel, Noah’s Ark, and the Tower of Babel.

The second section, comprising chapters 12-50, is called the “Patriarchal Age”. It includes all the stories of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and ends with the story of Joseph in Egypt, which allows the next book, Exodus, to begin with the Jewish people living in Egypt.

Let’s look a little closer at the important stories in Genesis.

What Is the Book of Genesis About?

There are a lot of foundational stories in this book, but here is a quick and dirty summary of the book of Genesis.

Genesis starts with God’s creation of the world in six days, after which he rests on the seventh. We then have the two stories of the creation of humans, Adam and Eve, which we’ll look at later on.

Once Adam and Eve are placed in the superabundant Garden of Eden, God orders them not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. But a serpent tricks Eve into eating from the tree and she persuades Adam to do the same. For this offense, God expels them from the garden, cursing Adam to survive only by hard work and cursing Eve to experience pain in childbirth.

Eve has two children, Cain and Abel. Cain works with agriculture and Abel with herding. They both bring the fruits of their labor to God as a sacrifice but God rejects Cain’s offering for no clear reason. This makes Cain bitter and he murders Abel, after which God curses Cain.

Many years later, the world has become corrupted and sinful and God decides to kill everyone and start over. According to the story, the only righteous man is Noah, so God decides to save him. He tells Noah to make an Ark, a giant boat, in which to place not only Noah’s family, but also two of every type of animal.

God then sends a destructive flood, killing everyone in the world except those in the Ark. Afterwards, God promises never to destroy the earth by flood again.

Then we have the story of humans working together to build a giant tower. God dislikes this and even seems to fear that humans will challenge him, so he divides the people, who had previously all spoken the same language, into different language groups. This causes them to abandon the tower, called Babel, and to scatter.

Next is the story of Abraham, a man God calls to leave the land of his birth and go to another land God will give him. God promises he will make Abraham the father of nations.

Abraham and his wife Sarah are already old and childless, but God promises he will give them a son. They don’t believe it, but Sarah indeed gets pregnant and bears a son, Isaac (Abraham had previously had a son, Ishmael, with his servant, who is then expelled when Isaac is born).

At one point, God tells Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. This is understandably upsetting to Abraham, but he shows his obedience to God by preparing to do it. Just before he kills Isaac, an angel stops his hand and Abraham is praised for his obedience.

Isaac goes on to marry Rebekah and have two sons, Jacob and Esau. Jacob later marries and has twelve sons. His favorite is Joseph, which makes the other sons jealous. As a result, the brothers sell Joseph into slavery in Egypt, telling Jacob that Joseph has been killed.

After some difficult experiences, Joseph becomes an important administrator in Egypt. When a famine occurs, Joseph’s brothers come to Egypt to beg for food and supplies. Joseph ultimately forgives his brothers, and they all settle in Egypt with him, setting the stage for the slavery of the Israelites in Egypt in Exodus.

What Do We Know About the Authorship of Genesis?

This is a simple question with a very complicated answer. It involves not only authors but kingdoms which had different traditions. These traditions were eventually merged into the book we have today. Let’s start there and explore the composition of Genesis.

Did Moses Write Genesis?

The book of Genesis is the first book of the Pentateuch, as the first five books of the Hebrew Bible are known. This includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Tradition says that Moses wrote these five books but the scholarly consensus is that Moses didn’t write any of them.

Instead, most scholars agree that there were three separate authors involved in creating the book of Genesis. In fact, it may make more sense to say that there are three separate literary traditions involved in the writing of Genesis. This is why, for example, some stories in Genesis are not only told more than once but have multiple versions.

These sources also came from different regions of what is now Israel.

Where and When Was Genesis Written?

Before we get into the sources themselves, we need to know a little about where they came from. What we now call Israel was actually split into two kingdoms in the 10th century BCE, with Israel as the northern kingdom and Judah as the southern kingdom. The different sources of Genesis we’ll discuss here come from traditions related to one or the other of those two kingdoms.

Judah was the kingdom of King David and his son Solomon. For this reason, sources from that region orient much of what they write, in Genesis and elsewhere, toward the eventual reign of David. Judah was conquered by Babylonia (in modern-day Iraq) in 597 BCE. Thus began a 70-year exile in Babylon for the Judahites. They were eventually allowed to return and rebuild, however.

Israel, on the other hand, had different traditions and a foundational king named Jeroboam. Israel was conquered by the Assyrians in 721 BCE. However, unlike Judah, Israel was essentially wiped out by the Assyrians and never rebuilt. Eventually, Judah took over both regions and the whole land was renamed Israel.

Having understood those two kingdoms and their effect on the traditions in Genesis, let’s explore our three sources. We will see that Genesis was written in order to establish and/or explain Jewish traditions after periods of exile.

Yahwist

Scholars call the first source the Yahwist source because it refers to God as “Yahweh”. Scholars usually abbreviate this source as “J” because the German transliteration of Yahweh begins with a J. I’ll use that abbreviation for the rest of this article. According to Joel Baden, J was written in the land of Judah and contributes the lion’s share of material in Genesis.

One of the ways scholars distinguish different sources in Genesis is that the different traditions called God by different names. But the names of other characters are changed between sources as well. For example, in the J source material in Exodus, the Israelites conquer a people called the Canaanites. In another source we’ll talk about below, the same people are called Amorites. J calls the mountain where Moses receives the law from God Sinai. In another source, however, the same mountain is called Horeb. 

While we don’t know the exact dates when the J material was written, scholars generally put its creation between the 10th and 9th centuries BCE. By the way, this puts it centuries later than Moses was supposed to have lived.

We know, as I mentioned above, that J wrote most of Genesis, including chapters  2–16, 18–22, 24–34, 38, and 49. However, remember when I said Genesis told the same stories more than once? This starts from the very beginning of the book.

For example, Genesis 1 gives an account of God’s creation of the world and everything in it in six days. But J didn’t write Genesis 1. J’s account of the creation begins in Genesis 2 and differs from Genesis 1.

Genesis 1 says that God created humans but doesn’t say how. Adam and Eve just appear at God’s insistence. But in Genesis 2, God forms a man from the dust of the earth and breathes life into him. Later he takes a rib from Adam and forms Eve.

Why would one book give two such different accounts? Because they represent two different traditions which were later put together in Genesis.

J goes on to write the story of Adam and Eve’s temptation by the serpent in the garden and their subsequent expulsion. He also writes the story of Noah, the Tower of Babel, and Abraham. These are, of course, foundational myths for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

So, since J contributes the most material, what are the other sources and what did they contribute to Genesis?

Elohist

Scholars call a second source for Genesis Elohist, abbreviated as “E” since this source calls God “Elohim”. E contributes much less to Genesis than J, although E contributes far more to the book of Exodus. E was written in the 9th century BCE in the northern kingdom of Israel and therefore emphasizes northern place names and heroes like Joshua.

We first see E’s handiwork in Genesis 20, which is part of the continuing story of Abraham and his wife Sarah. As I said before, E doesn’t contribute nearly as much material to the Pentateuch until the book of Exodus.

Priestly

The third source for Genesis is the Priestly source or “P”. It’s called Priestly because its main concerns are rules for priests involving ceremonies and cultic regulations. It was probably written sometime between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, much later than the other two.

The earliest layer of this tradition was likely written in Judah. However, most of this source was written during the Babylonian exile. This would contribute to its focus on establishing traditions and genealogies. P wanted the exiles not to forget who they were and where they had come from.

P contributes the first creation story in Genesis 1. P also writes Adam’s genealogy in Genesis 5 and the genealogy of Shem in Genesis 11 which leads up to Abraham. In addition, P contributes Abraham’s covenant with God and a few other stories about Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

What is the Significance of Genesis for Jews and Christians?

For Jews, Genesis is literally an origin story and creates the foundation for the rest of the Hebrew Bible’s stories, writings, and prophecies, which is certainly why it is the first book in the canon. It begins from the creation of the world by Israel’s God and goes on to show how the Jewish people emerged from God’s promises to Abraham, the father of the Jews.

In short, Genesis shows how the Jewish people began and how they overcame adversity through the advocacy and power of their God.

Christianity began in Israel among Jews – including Jesus, of course – and was simply one sect of Judaism among many at its inception. As its traditions developed, however, theologians began to interpret the stories of Genesis and other books as proof texts for their Christian version of history.

Some interpreted the serpent in the garden, for example, as Satan, something the book itself never says. Paul, among others, interpreted the story of Adam and Eve’s sin as the entrance of the great power of sin into the world. A later theologian, Augustine, would interpret this as the corruption of the human soul with which all descendants of Adam, that is, every human, would then be born.

From this interpretation of the Genesis story, many went on to say that Jesus’ death and resurrection were the antidote to this sin initiated by Satan at the beginning of the world. In fact, many Christians still believe this.

If you’re interested in finding out more about Genesis, by the way, check out Bart Ehrman’s course In the Beginning: History, Legend, and Myth in the Pentateuch. 

Conclusion

Genesis, the first book of the Bible, narrates the creation of the world and the early history of humanity, including the stories of Adam and Eve, Noah, and the Tower of Babel. It also details the patriarchal history of the Israelites, focusing on Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, ending with the Israelites in Egypt.

The book was written by three different sources coming from two different kingdoms. The majority of Genesis was written by the J or Yahwhist source, a Judean-based source responding to their exile in Babylon by writing down traditions and stories of their foundation for those rebuilding the destroyed Judah. The rest was written by the Elohist or E source from the ultimately doomed northern kingdom of Israel and the Priestly or P source in Judah, concerned principally with cultic regulations and traditions.

Genesis is foundational for both Jews and Christians. For Jews, it tells the stories of how Israel’s God created the world and how he used Abraham to found and establish their people with God’s help and guidance.

For Christians, the stories also tell how Satan brought sin into the world through Adam and Eve, corrupting all subsequent humans with sin for which Jesus’ death was the price of salvation.