Yom Kippur: History & Meaning of the Day of Atonement (2025)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Yom Kippur stands as a sacred date on the Jewish calendar, a time of deep reflection, repentance, and renewal. While many today recognize it as a solemn day marked by fasting and prayer, the roots of Yom Kippur stretch back thousands of years to the rituals of the ancient Israelite priesthood, described in striking detail in the Hebrew Bible.

So what is Yom Kippur? In this article, I’ll explain its multifaceted history and the evolving Yom Kippur meaning — from its biblical origins and priestly rituals of purification to its reinterpretation in early Christianity and its modern observance focused on personal introspection and ethical living. By tracing the journey of this holy day through Scripture, tradition, and transformation, we uncover how a single day can carry both ancient weight and contemporary relevance.

When is Yom Kippur 2025? This year it will start on Oct 1 at sundown and end at nightfall on Oct 2.

Yom Kippur’s Meaning

The name Yom Kippur, designating the highest of the Jewish holy days and celebrated on the 10th day of the 7th month of the Jewish calendar (the month of Tishrei), comes from the Hebrew Bible, specifically Leviticus 23:27 and 25:9 where it is called Yom Hakippurim (the -im ending indicates pluralization, or “Day of Atonements”). Marc Zvi Brettler points out that our translation of the word “kippur” as atonement actually comes from the Septuagint, the ancient translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek.

In the Septuagint, kippur is translated as ilasmou, which can mean atonement or seeking the favor of a god. The Latin version of the Hebrew Bible then translated the word as “expiationum,” or expiation, the process by which individuals take some action to have their sins forgiven. Brettler notes, however, that the original Hebrew word kippurim does not mean individual atonement or expiation.

The ritual and purpose of the Yom Kippur is described in detail in Leviticus 16. At the end of this description, God explains the reason the ritual must be performed annually:

Brettler explains that in this ritual, “the altar absorbs certain sins of the Israelites, and the main function of Yom Kippur is to cleanse these sins by using the blood of a purification offering (sometimes called a “sin offering”) as a type of ritual detergent.” For this reason, he says that the best translation of the Hebrew word kippur would be “purgation,” which “specifically refers to the purgation or cleansing of sins from the tabernacle or temple.”

Leviticus 16 explains other connected rituals too, including a scapegoat (a literal goat) that bears away the Israelites’ sins (more on this later). Brettler concludes that while Leviticus 16 certainly addresses the purging of sin, it is not related to individual repentance, as it would be later in Jewish history.

By the way, Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur are called the high holy days in Judaism. Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year and believed to take place on the date when God created the world, according to Samuel Boyd. As such, it’s a time for celebration. The ten days following Rosh Hashanah are called the Days of Awe, culminating in the highly solemn and sacred Day of Atonement.

Next, let’s discuss Yom Kippur’s relation to the New Testament.

The Day of Atonement in the New Testament

In The Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity, Daniel Stokl Ben Ezra writes that since much of the New Testament was written after the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans, and since the Yom Kippur sacrifices were only to be made in the Temple, many Jews were rethinking the importance of the original ritual. This included some of the NT’s authors, some of whom characterized Jesus’ death as a Yom Kippur sacrifice. However, other NT authors, such as Paul, who was writing before the destruction of the Temple, had already begun to make this connection.

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For example, in Romans 3:23-25, Paul writes that

Similarly, in Galatians 1:4, Paul talks about Jesus “who gave himself for our sins to set us free from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father.” Finally, in the most explicit reference to Jesus as the Yom Kippur sacrifice, in Hebrews 9:11-14, the anonymous author writes that Jesus was both the priest performing the sacrificial rite, and the sacrifice itself:

In addition, Hebrews 10:10 says that while the Yom Kippur sacrifices had to be made every year, those who believe in Jesus “have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all.”

Having explored the history of Yom Kippur, both for Judaism and Christianity, let’s look at how the original ritual was performed and what is done today.

The Ancient Ritual of Yom Kippur

A week before the ancient rite of Yom Kippur in the Temple in Jerusalem, the High Priest would live in a special chamber in the Temple to spiritually prepare himself for the Day of Atonement. On the day of Yom Kippur, he would enter the Holy of Holies, a special chamber closed off with a curtain and containing an altar. This was the place where God’s presence was believed to dwell within the Temple. Only the High Priest could enter this chamber, and only on the Day of Atonement.

On Yom Kippur, three different types of sacrificial services were performed. First, the regular daily offering which was offered every day of the year. Numbers 28:3-8 describes what was offered to God in this ritual:

Next came the Mussaf, or additional sacrifice for special days, described in Numbers 29:7-11:

Finally, the official Yom Kippur service, described in Leviticus 16, was performed. First, the high priest would donate one young bull for a sin-offering, and one ram for a burnt-offering. Then the people would give the priest two goats for a sin-offering, and one ram for a burnt-offering. One of the goats would be sacrificed as atonement for the collective sins of the people while the other would be designated the scapegoat. Leviticus 16:21-22, describing Moses’ brother Aaron as the first high priest, explains what is to be done with the scapegoat:

With the sins of the people symbolically carried away by the scapegoat, the people and the Temple were purified for another year. However, once the Temple was destroyed, the Yom Kippur ritual necessarily changed, both in significance and in practice. How is the day celebrated by modern Jewish people and what does it mean now?

Modern Day of Atonement: What Do You Say on Yom Kippur?

While the Day of Atonement in the ancient world focused on purifying the collective Jewish people and their Temple of sins, modern Jewish denominations focus more on individual repentance for sins and trying to live more ethically in the future.

The website ReformJudaism.org notes that the modern practices of Yom Kippur focus on three principles. The first is t’shuvah or repentance, the recognition of what one has done wrong and the intention to do better. The second is t’filah or prayer, bringing one closer to God. The third is tzedakah, which means justice or righteousness and refers specifically to charitable giving. With these three combined, Jews believe they can atone for past wrongs and strive to be better in the future.

Leviticus 16 states that before the rituals of Yom Kippur, people must practice self-denial. For modern Jews, this means abstaining for 24 hours from eating or drinking, from wearing leather, from showering or shaving, from putting on perfumes or lotions, and from sexual relations. Keep in mind that this 24 hours is counted from sundown the day before the holiday until sundown the next day, in accordance with ancient Jewish timekeeping practices.

Additionally, many Jews wear white on Yom Kippur. ReformJudaism.org notes that for some this symbolizes purity, while for others it represents the shroud in which the dead are buried, a reminder to remain humble and repent.

At home, a final meal is eaten before sundown followed by a candle lighting to initiate the Yom Kippur fast. Many also make sure to do some form of charitable giving before going to the synagogue.

At the synagogue, there is a long series of services. Not everyone attends them all, but most religious Jews go to at least some. The first service happens the evening before the Day of Atonement and is called Kol Nidre, meaning “all vows.” It is a special liturgy only performed on Yom Kippur in a mix of Aramaic and Hebrew. Its purpose is to annul any unintended vows made to God and is repeated three times.

The services also include multiple readings from the Torah, and even a memorial service for deceased loved ones, vowing to let their memory inspire the living to be the best people they can be in the coming year.

Additionally, the congregation recites a prayer called Al Cheit, a prayer of confession that recounts the sins of the past year. Implied in this is repentance and the intention not to repeat these mistakes in the coming year.

Finally, at the end of Yom Kippur, the shofar, a ritual horn made from a ram’s horn, is blown to signal the end of the Day of Atonement and the fast is broken.

Conclusion

For Jews, past and present, Yom Kippur is the holiest day of the year. It is celebrated on the 10th day of the month of Tishrei in the Jewish calendar and signifies purification from the sins that would displease God.

The original Day of Atonement can be found in the Hebrew Bible, especially Leviticus 16. It included burnt offerings and a ritual in which a goat, the scapegoat, was symbolically loaded with the sins of the people and sent away, signifying that the sins no longer existed.

Some early Christians, such as the author of the book of Hebrews, saw Jesus as the new form of the Yom Kippur sacrifice, a sacrifice which he saw not as an annual necessity but as a one-time offering that wiped away sin forever for those who believed.

While the original rituals with burnt offerings were performed in the Temple, new traditions arose after its destruction. Modern Jews fast and abstain from luxuries like bathing and the wearing of leather on the day of Yom Kippur. They also spend a long time in prayer and liturgy at the synagogue. At the end of the day, the shofar is blown, signifying both the end of the holiday and the successful completion of the required repentance.

Second Temple Judaism: Meaning and Timeline

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

There is a popular saying among historians: “A text without a context is a pretext.” In other words, if we attempt to interpret people, ideas, or events from the past without first understanding the world they inhabited, we risk misrepresenting them entirely.

I remember the first time I heard this phrase in a university lecture hall. It was during an introductory course on the historical Jesus, taught by a professor whose clarity and passion left a lasting impression. “If you want to understand the historical Jesus,” he told us, “you first need to understand Second Temple Judaism.”

That statement, simple as it seemed, opened a door into a world of overlapping traditions, sectarian disputes, and shifting political powers. From that moment on, I began to see the study of history not as a mere exercise in collecting facts, but as a way of restoring lost voices to their rightful context.

That same lecture made another point that has stayed with me: Historical figures do not live in a vacuum. They speak particular languages, navigate specific cultural tensions, and react to the realities of their own time. Jesus, his followers, and even his opponents were all products of a distinct historical setting.

To separate them from it would be like trying to understand Martin Luther without the medieval Church, or Gandhi without British colonialism. The roots of early Christianity are deeply intertwined with the soil of Second Temple Judaism. Unless we first understand that foundation, we cannot truly grasp what grew out of it.

As a historian of early Christianity, I’ve come to appreciate how crucial it is to understand the broader landscape from which the movement emerged. The period we now refer to as “Second Temple Judaism” wasn’t a monolith. Rather, it was a dynamic and evolving world, shaped by empire, exile, temple ritual, and theological innovation.

What is Second Temple Judaism? In the sections that follow, we’ll explore what historians mean when referring to it, trace its historical arc, and examine the profound changes that occurred after the temple’s destruction in 70 C.E.

If you're interested in the historical roots of Judaism and want to explore how scholars approach one of its most iconic figures, you might enjoy Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About the Exodus and the Jewish Law.

In eight engaging lectures, Dr. Ehrman examines the Book of Exodus from a critical perspective, asking whether Moses was a historical figure or a legendary creation, and what that means for understanding the origins of Jewish law and tradition.

When Was Second Temple Judaism? Defining the Era

For Jews, there is a collective past that contributes enormously to their sense of unity, and without which Judaism cannot be understood. The collective memory in Judaism isn’t merely a sequence of events that once transpired, but a story to be studied, transmitted, and in certain cases, even re-lived.

In other words, Judaism represents an ongoing but constantly changing saga of 4,000 years. Each period left its distinct mark; thus, although certain basic beliefs were fixed, new expressions were constantly being added, or replacing earlier ones. 

How should we understand the period known as Second Temple Judaism? What are its major features? Most importantly, when did it occur?

Broadly speaking, the term “Second Temple Judaism” refers to the religious, cultural, and political developments in Jewish life between the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple after the Babylonian exile (circa 516 B.C.E.) and its destruction by the Romans in 70 C.E. 

But why was the rebuilding necessary in the first place? To understand that, we must look back to what Jewish tradition regards as the First Temple, constructed by King Solomon in the 10th century B.C.E. According to biblical accounts, Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem as a permanent dwelling place for the Ark of the Covenant and as the central site for Israelite worship.

This structure stood as the heart of Jewish religious life for centuries until 586 B.C.E., when the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, razed the Temple to the ground, and exiled much of the Judean population to Babylon.

The nearly six-century-long era of Second Temple Judaism saw profound transformations, not only in the physical and political landscape of Judea but also in the diverse ways Jewish identity, theology, and practice were conceived and negotiated.

As Loren T. Stuckenbruck notes, this period is “pivotal,” not simply because of its chronological placement between the First and Second Jewish Temples, but because it witnessed “a series of far-reaching socioreligious and political shifts” that influenced Jewish communities in Judea and across the diaspora.

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Despite the tendency to view ancient Judaism as a singular, monolithic religion, the Second Temple period is best understood as a tapestry woven from many different strands.

And yet, even amidst the diversity, certain enduring features can be identified: A shared commitment to sacred traditions (particularly the Torah), reverence for the Temple as the earthly dwelling of God, and ongoing efforts to define Jewish identity in the face of foreign rule and internal tensions.

At the heart of this era stood the Second Temple itself, originally rebuilt by returning exiles under the Persian Empire and later magnificently renovated by Herod the Great in the 1st century B.C.E. Bart D. Ehrman and Hugo Mendez note the paramount importance of the Jewish Temple:

To put it more bluntly, the Temple served as the ritual and symbolic center of Jewish life. It was the locus of daily sacrifices, annual pilgrimages, priestly activity, and national festivals. But beyond its function as a religious institution, it also served as a political and economic hub.

For many Jews, to imagine religious life without the Temple was nearly unthinkable, a reality that would be deeply challenged in the wake of its destruction.

Yet Second Temple Judaism wasn’t limited to Jerusalem. As Stuckenbruck emphasizes, this was a period of intense cultural interaction, political upheaval, and geographic dispersion. 

Jewish communities thrived in the diaspora (in Egypt, Babylon, Asia Minor, and beyond) where they creatively adapted their traditions to new settings, often translating sacred texts into Greek and engaging with surrounding cultures.

Throughout this time, the memory of the Temple and the land of Israel remained powerful symbols, even for those who lived far from them. Still, the lived reality of Judaism evolved and expanded, responding to new circumstances while staying rooted in ancient narratives.

Second Temple Judaism: Social, Religious, and Political Background

Needless to say, Second Temple Judaism didn’t emerge separate from outside influence. Rather, a succession of foreign empires, each imposing its political systems, economic models, and cultural values on the Jewish people shaped it.

From the return from Babylonian exile under Persian auspices in the late 6th century B.C.E. to the increasing tensions under Roman occupation in the 1st century C.E., the Jewish population of Judea and the broader diaspora navigated complex political circumstances while negotiating their religious identity.

As Daniel M. Gurtner emphasizes, the historical and political contexts of this period weren’t simply background details. Rather, they were formative pressures that fundamentally influenced the evolution of Jewish life, belief, and practice.

The Persian Empire (539-332 B.C.E.) provided the earliest foundation for this new era. After conquering Babylon, Cyrus the Great issued an edict permitting the exiled Judeans to return and rebuild the Jerusalem Temple, which, as already noted, had been destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E.

The Second Temple was completed around 516 B.C.E. and became the central symbol of religious continuity. Persian policy allowed a considerable degree of local religious autonomy without any strict policies of imposing foreign cults and beliefs.

The arrival of Alexander the Great and the subsequent division of his empire introduced new dynamics. Under the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Ptolemies (based in Egypt) and later the Seleucids (based in Syria), Judea experienced both cultural exchange and political exploitation

Greek language, education, and customs penetrated deeply into urban centers, challenging traditional Jewish norms. These changes culminated in the policies of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, whose attempt to suppress Jewish religious practices and install Hellenistic cults in the Temple sparked the Maccabean Revolt in the 160s B.C.E. and the rise of the Hasmonean dynasty.

However, the true reasons for this revolt go beyond the simplified Antiochus IV vs. Jews picture that previous generations of scholars often painted.

Simon C. Mimouni, in his book Le judaïsme ancien du VIe siècle avant notre ère au IIIe siècle de notre ère (Ancient Judaism from the 6th Century B.C.E. to the 3rd Century C.E.) explains:

In any case, the Hasmonean period (140-63 B.C.E.) was marked by both expansion and internal strain. The rulers expanded Jewish territory and enforced religious uniformity, but their legitimacy was often contested. Conflicts between different Jewish factions intensified, particularly over questions of priestly authority, legal interpretation, and relations with foreign (Hellenistic) powers.

These divisions laid the groundwork for the emergence of competing groups within Judaism (see Did You Know? section), even as the Hasmonean leadership became increasingly aligned with aristocratic and priestly interests.

Eventually, internal conflict and external pressure led to Roman intervention. In 63 B.C.E., Pompey the Great entered Jerusalem and effectively made Judea a client state of the Roman Republic.

Under Roman rule, and especially during the reign of Herod the Great (37-4 B.C.E.), the political landscape of Judea was further transformed. Herod, appointed king by Rome, was a shrewd and ruthless figure who maintained power through a mix of brutal suppression and ambitious building projects.

His most famous contribution was the massive renovation and expansion of the Jerusalem Temple. It was a move that sought to win favor with the Jewish population while displaying his loyalty to Rome. 

Herod’s reign, however, was marked by deep suspicion and political volatility. In his book Backgrounds of Early Christianity, Everett Ferguson notes that “although Herod was a Jew by religion, his racial descent was Edomite,” and despite his efforts to appease the Jews, he was never popular. 

The fact that he killed a large part of his own family (Emperor Augustus famously quipped he would rather be Herod's pig than Herod's son) and ordered the arrest and execution of prominent citizens upon his death (so there would be mourning whether people liked him or not) certainly didn’t help his popularity among the Jewish people.

His successors, including Archelaus and the Roman procurators who followed, struggled to maintain enduring stability. Increasing economic burdens and mounting resentment toward Roman interference in Jewish religious life fostered a climate of unrest that would eventually erupt in open revolt.

Consequently, by the mid-1st century C.E., the social fabric of Judean society had begun to fray under the weight of Roman taxation, elite collaboration with imperial powers, and widespread disillusionment among the population.

In other words, the world of Second Temple Judaism on the eve of the war in 66 C.E. was one of remarkable diversity, spiritual vitality, and deep tension – a tension that would eventually lead to the collapse of the entire period and the emergence of rabbinic Judaism.

The End of Second Temple Judaism

It’s an irony of history that Second Temple Judaism began after Jews returned from exile, and ended with a devastating war and yet another exile. What had been a long and dynamic period of religious life, cultural development, and political adaptation was brought to a violent halt in 70 C.E. with the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by the Romans.

Scholars have broadly identified five interwoven causes for the revolt that erupted in 66 C.E.: Social inequality, fiscal exploitation, political frustration, cultural dislocation, and ideological alienation.

The political dimension was particularly explosive. As Mimouni notes: 

Similarly, Paul Johnson, in his book A History of the Jews, notes that the “real trouble with the Jews was that they were too advanced, too intellectually conscious to find alien rule acceptable.” 

Except for the Sadducean elite (a small group mostly drawn from the priestly class and Temple functionaries), the majority of Judeans longed for some degree of national self-determination, free from Greek influence and Roman exploitation.

Simultaneously, cultural and economic pressures mounted. The spread of Greco-Roman culture, institutions, and urban life alienated large segments of the population, especially in rural areas. Roman taxation policies and land seizures impoverished many Judeans, while the collaboration of elite classes with imperial power created sharp social divides.

So, when open revolt broke out in 66 C.E., it was driven by both desperate anger and messianic hope, but it was also met with brutal Roman efficiency.

The war reached its tragic climax in 70 C.E. when Titus, son of the Emperor Vespasian, led Roman forces in the siege and destruction of Jerusalem. The Temple (the very heart of Jewish religious life) was reduced to rubble.

In his book From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Shaye Cohen notes the profound consequences of the Jewish revolt:

For generations, Jews had turned toward this sacred center to offer sacrifices, observe festivals, and gather in pilgrimage. Its annihilation marked not merely the loss of a building, but the collapse of a religious world. As Gedaliah Alon observed:

Out of this vacuum emerged a bold and adaptive response in the form of rabbinic Judaism. 

This period, as Shaye Cohen explains, “begins in 70 CE and ends in the 6th century CE. Historians of the ancient world usually refer to these centuries as 'late antiquity' because they mark the end of the classical world... For historians of Judaism, these centuries also mark the end of one world and the beginning of another. The shift from Second Temple Judaism to rabbinic Judaism is not a mere chronological transition but a substantive change.”

Rabbinic literature ascribes much of the initial effort to reimagine Jewish life to Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai. According to later traditions, Yohanan negotiated with Roman authorities to establish a center for learning and religious leadership in Yavne (Jamnia), a small town on the southern coast. 

The Mishnah attributes to him several key ordinances aimed at preserving religious continuity by adapting or relocating formerly Temple-bound practices to new settings. These changes laid the groundwork for a revised authority structure in which the rabbis, not the priests, would take center stage.

Though the details of these accounts were likely shaped by generations of retrospective editing, they reflect a real historical process: The gradual emergence of rabbinic Judaism.

This post-Temple Judaism took on a markedly different character. It was decentralized, text-based, and spiritually elastic. Synagogues became the new centers of communal life. 

Sacrifice gave way to prayer, and the charismatic authority of the rabbi replaced the inherited status of the priest. Rabbis, unlike the Temple priesthood, could travel, teach, and gather disciples across Judea and the diaspora.

Over time, their interpretations of the Torah and their commitment to halakhic reasoning would define Jewish religious life for centuries to come. Though born out of crisis, this restructured Judaism proved resilient, adaptable, and deeply rooted in the experience of survival. With the Temple in ruins, Second Temple Judaism passed into history.

Conclusion

As we noted at the beginning, “a text without a context is a pretext.” Nowhere is this more apparent than in the case of early Christianity and the world that gave rise to it.

To understand the teachings, tensions, and trajectories of Jesus and his earliest followers, we must first understand the historical landscape they inhabited. That landscape was Second Temple Judaism. It was a period of vibrant diversity, political complexity, and theological creativity.

Without it, many of the debates, practices, and expectations we find in the New Testament remain historically unintelligible.

Second Temple Judaism, though long past, left a profound imprint on Jewish and Christian history alike. Its destruction didn’t mark an end, but a transformation. What emerged in its place (rabbinic Judaism, synagogue worship, portable traditions) testifies to the resilience of a people and their faith.

Abrahamic Religions: Comparing 3 Major World Religions (CHART)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

A recent conversation with a Muslim friend underscored the importance of studying and understanding the history and nature of the Abrahamic religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Together, we reflected on how these three faiths have profoundly shaped the world we live in.

With more than three billion people identifying with one of these traditions, the Abrahamic religions continue to play a central role in shaping societies, beliefs, and values globally. These faiths are deeply interwoven with significant historical and cultural phenomena.

For example, people can’t fully understand the Arab-Israeli conflict — a pivotal issue in global politics — without appreciating the religious histories and core beliefs underpinning Judaism and Islam. Similarly, the cultural legacies of Christianity, such as the sacred music of Johann Sebastian Bach, remain incomprehensible without reference to its theological foundations.

Religion, as a human phenomenon, transcends the boundaries of personal faith. It intersects with politics, art, ethics, and social structures, providing profound insights into the human condition. Exploring the beliefs and practices of the Abrahamic religions, therefore, opens windows into diverse worldviews. 

This article offers an accessible yet scholarly exploration of Abrahamic religions’ differences, highlighting the contrasting elements and similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. 

It will outline their shared roots, their sacred scriptures, and their distinctive beliefs and practices. By delving into these core aspects, we aim to shed light on the historical and theological threads that bind these traditions together while also accepting their rich diversity.

Understanding the Abrahamic religions, along with their beliefs, values, and historical significance, is an indispensable part of comprehending the world we inhabit. In the following sections, we’ll, therefore, embark on a journey to uncover the core beliefs and practices of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. 

However, before we proceed, consider diving deeper into one of the most intriguing figures in the Abrahamic religions by exploring Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course, “Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law.”

In this 8-lecture series, Dr. Ehrman offers a scholarly and fresh analysis of Moses as a historical figure, tackling questions like: Did Moses really exist? What can we reliably know about him? If you’re fascinated by the intersection of history, faith, and critical scholarship, this course is an excellent next step.

Abrahamic Religions: Timeline Table

First, I decided to dive straight into the broad similarities between the Abrahamic religions and discuss the fascinating comparative approach sociologists use to analyze them. But then, I paused and thought, why not do something slightly different?

Before plunging into the depths of these traditions, let’s take a quick detour with a timeline of key historical events that have shaped Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Think of it as a brief historical appetizer before the main course of our exploration!

An Overview: Key Similarities

In a scholarly essay, Niels Nielsen observed that most religions, including those within the Abrahamic tradition, rely on sacred scriptures to articulate a coherent worldview. These texts often contain narratives about the lives and teachings of key religious figures, illuminating the human condition and providing guidance toward a hopeful and meaningful future.

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In the Abrahamic religions, stories about Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad serve as profound sources of authority, reflecting their roles as leaders and reformers within their respective traditions. These scriptures — whether the Torah, the Bible, or the Quran — bind communities together with shared moral teachings and spiritual insights.

In What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, John Esposito explains the historical core tenets of Abrahamic religions:

The second dimension of similarity lies in the fundamental belief in monotheism. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam each emphasize the worship of one God, a concept that serves as the cornerstone of their theological frameworks.

Judaism proclaims the oneness of God through the Shema, a central prayer that declares, “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one.” While introducing the doctrine of the Trinity, Christianity upholds monotheism by affirming that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are three persons in one divine essence.

Islam, too, emphasizes the absolute unity of God through the concept of “tawhid,” expressed unequivocally in the Quran. This shared monotheistic foundation highlights a profound commonality between these religions, even as they interpret and express the nature of God in distinctive ways.

Rituals form the third important dimension of similarity among the Abrahamic religions. If religion is seen as a key force in shaping social and group identity, then rituals emerge as central mechanisms for creating and maintaining that identity.

In his book Les rites de passage (The Rites of Passage), French anthropologist Arnold van Gennep describes the theory of lifecycle rituals, comprising the stages of separation, transition, and reincorporation. His theory offers a useful lens for understanding how Judaism, Christianity, and Islam use rituals to mark significant moments in the human lifecycle. 

Across these traditions, ceremonies surrounding birth, coming of age, marriage, and death reflect shared anthropological patterns, even as their specific forms differ. For instance, circumcision in Judaism, baptism in Christianity, and the “aqiqah” ceremony in Islam all highlight the importance of marking the beginning of life within the community of faith.

Beyond lifecycle rituals, other practices such as prayer, fasting, and acts of charity reveal further broad commonalities. Each tradition calls its adherents to regular acts of devotion: Jews observe daily prayers (tefillah), Christians partake in communal worship, and Muslims perform “salah” five times a day. 

Similarly, the emphasis on charitable giving — ”tzedakah” in Judaism, almsgiving in Christianity, and “zakat” in Islam demonstrates a shared commitment to social responsibility and compassion for the needy.

Through their sacred scriptures, monotheistic convictions, and ritual frameworks, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam provide their followers with a sense of purpose, identity, and connection that transcends individual and cultural differences.

However, a comparative examination of the Abrahamic religions reminds us that significant differences also distinguish these traditions. While they share broad commonalities, each religion preserves unique practices, beliefs, and values that reflect its distinct identity.

In his book The Abrahamic Religions: A Very Short Introduction, Charles L. Cohen rightly points out:

Similarly, in Islam and the West, Bernard Lewis observes:

So, to better understand these distinctions and differences, we’ll continue our exploration by examining their scriptures, core beliefs, and practices through a focused, tripartite analysis.

Abrahamic Religions: Differences

To appreciate the differences among the Abrahamic religions, it’s crucial to adopt a mindset that allows us to “see with a native eye.” This approach helps us avoid the common pitfalls of interpreting religious traditions through the lens of our own cultural or personal assumptions.

Instead, we must ensure that the questions we ask are informed by the realities and worldviews of the people who practice these faiths, rather than by our preconceived notions. Let us begin this exploration by examining the sacred texts of the Abrahamic religions and the distinctive roles they play within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Sacred Scripture in Judaism

When Muhammad, Islam's central prophet, referred to Jews, along with Christians and Zoroastrians, as “people of the book,” he recognized the central role scripture plays in Judaism. For over two millennia, the Jewish Bible has been a cornerstone of religious life.

Jewish (or Hebrew) Bible is often referred to by the acronym Tanakh. This designation encapsulates its three primary components: the Torah (the Five Books of Moses, also known as the Pentateuch), the Nevi’im (the Prophets), and the Ketuvim (the Writings).

Together, these texts form the foundation of Jewish religious life, guiding both communal and individual practice. However, Jewish holy literature extends far beyond the Tanakh. As Jonathan Rosenbaum aptly observes in The Holy Book in Comparative Perspective:

Moreover, the order of the books in the Hebrew Bible doesn’t correspond to the order of the Christian Old Testament.

The latter, as Robert E. Van Voorst, notes in The Anthology of World Scriptures, is “based on the Greek translation made for Jews living in the Gentile world whose first language was Greek, not Hebrew. This translation was made before Christianity began. Known as the Septuagint, this version of the Jewish Bible was the main scripture of many Jews, and the only scripture of early Christianity until Christians recognized the New Testament as their scripture in the second and third centuries C.E.”

Sacred Scripture in Christianity

Christianity, being one of the Abrahamic religions, emerged from the Jewish matrix and shares the books of the Hebrew Bible as part of its sacred scripture. However, the Christian interpretation of these texts diverges significantly from that of Judaism.

As David Brakke and Mary Jo Weaver have noted, Christians interpret the Hebrew Bible through the lens of Jesus Christ. For them, the life and teachings of Jesus reframe the Hebrew Bible, presenting it as a prophetic precursor to his arrival. In this view, the events and narratives of the Hebrew Bible culminate in Jesus, who fulfills its promises.

For Jews, however, these same texts don’t point to Jesus at all. Instead, they anticipate a future Messiah, and their significance remains oriented toward events yet to come. This fundamental difference in interpretation reflects a profound theological divergence between the two traditions.

In other words, while the early Christian church adopted the Hebrew Bible as sacred scripture, it did so with a transformed understanding. The confession of Jesus as the Messiah became the interpretive lens through which these texts were read. Christians viewed the Hebrew Bible as a foreshadowing of Jesus, with its laws, prophecies, and narratives reinterpreted as prefigurations of his life and mission.

Another key difference lies in the Christian addition of the New Testament to its canon of scripture. The New Testament, a collection of 27 texts written during the first and second centuries C.E., is wholly absent from Jewish sacred literature.

These differences in scripture and interpretation highlight the distinct paths taken by Judaism and Christianity. Both traditions engage deeply with sacred texts, but the meanings and roles they ascribe to those texts are shaped by their unique theological frameworks.

Sacred Scripture in Islam

And just when you think the conversation about sacred texts couldn’t get more interesting, Islam enters the scene with its own profound and distinct contribution to the Abrahamic scriptural tradition — the Quran. Buckle up, because this story takes some fascinating turns!

In Islamic theology, the Quran is understood as the ultimate and uncorrupted revelation of God, sent to humanity through the Prophet Muhammad. It acknowledges the Torah and the Gospel as earlier divine revelations but asserts that these texts were distorted over time, necessitating the Quran as a corrective rather than an outright replacement.

Muslims, therefore, regard Islam not as something new but as the original and final monotheistic religion, restoring the pure worship of God practiced by Abraham.

As W. Montgomery Watt explains in The Cambridge History of Islam: 

Furthermore, Muslims believe the Quran to be the literal and perfect word of God, free from human alteration or corruption. Unlike the Bible in both Jewish and Christian traditions, which are considered to have been composed through human intervention (Catechism of the Catholic Church, for instance, notes that “God inspired the human authors of the sacred books”), the Quran is viewed as an unbroken transmission of divine will.

Additionally, the Quran’s role extends beyond the religious realm to encompass societal norms and legal principles. 

In Muslim countries today, the Quran shapes both private devotion and public life. In other words, the Quran’s verses are seen as comprehensive, offering ethical directives, legal injunctions, and spiritual teachings that transcend the boundaries of personal faith.

Islam’s intertwining of religion and governance is a defining characteristic that sets it apart from Christianity. Bernard Lewis, a renowned scholar of Islam, highlights this distinction in the following way:

The Quran, therefore, reflects this dual role, addressing not only matters of personal faith but also issues of governance, warfare, and social justice. Its verses provide the foundation for Islamic law, or “sharia,” which regulates both individual conduct and collective responsibilities.

Core Tenets and Beliefs in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Charles L. Cohen rightly points out:

While Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a foundational belief in one God, their interpretations of monotheism diverge significantly, reflecting their unique theological frameworks and traditions.

Judaism’s View of Monotheism

In Judaism, as Joseph Teluskhin notes, monotheism is firmly grounded in the concept of ethical monotheism — belief in one God who isn’t only the creator of the universe but also the source of moral guidance. A notable illustration of this is the philosophical work of Maimonides, the renowned 12th-century Jewish thinker.

In his articulation of Judaism’s core beliefs, the first four directly affirm monotheism: the existence of one God, the incorporeal nature of God, and God’s eternal existence. Maimonides further emphasizes that God alone is worthy of worship, rejecting any intermediaries. This unwavering monotheism is central to Judaism’s identity.

Christianity’s View of Monotheism

Christianity, while rooted in Jewish monotheism, reinterprets it through the doctrine of the Trinity. Most Christians today believe in one God who exists in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit.

In his Introduction to Christianity, Joseph Ratzinger explains the emergence of the Trinity as a theological notion:

This concept distinguishes Christianity from the other Abrahamic religions, as it frames Jesus not merely as a prophet but as the divine (incarnated) Son of God.

Monotheism in Islam

Islam, on the other hand, asserts an uncompromising form of monotheism known as “tawhid.” The Quran (2:163) declares: “And your god is one God. There is no deity [worthy of worship] except Him, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful.” This is just one of the many instances where the sacred book of Islam explicitly affirms the religion’s strict monotheism.  

Unlike Christianity, Islam, therefore, rejects the doctrine of the Trinity, viewing it as a form of polytheism and a grave and unforgivable sin (“shirk”). Muslims respect Jesus as a prophet but deny his divinity or status as the Son of God. 

This strict monotheistic stance is reflected in Islamic art and culture, where concerns about idolatry have historically led to the avoidance of human depictions, favoring calligraphy and geometric designs to celebrate divine transcendence.

What about Islam’s relationship with Judaism? While the Arabic religion respects the prophets of the Old and New Testaments, including Moses and Jesus, Muhammad holds a uniquely exalted position within the Islamic tradition.

As the final prophet, or “Seal of the Prophets,” Muhammad is regarded as the ultimate messenger of God, entrusted with delivering the Quran to humanity. Esposito explains:

Moreover, out of the five pillars of Islam (core beliefs accepted by the majority of the Islamic world), the first one is the profession of faith in which Muhammad is explicitly mentioned. A Muslim is anyone who sincerely testifies that "there is no god but God [Allah] and Muhammad is the messenger of God.”

This deep respect underscores Muhammad’s unparalleled status in Islam while reinforcing the Quran’s role as the definitive guide for faith and practice. Christians and Jews reject both of these notions, which are so fundamental within the Islamic tradition! 

Differences in Rituals and Practices Among the Abrahamic Religions

In Abrahamic religions, prayer holds a special place. However, even the prayers are different, emerging within specific historical and social circumstances. Let’s take a closer look!

Rituals and Practices in Judaism

With the cessation of temple sacrifices in Jerusalem in 70 C.E., prayer emerged as the primary way for Jews to connect with God. In the aftermath of this transformative event, Rabbinic Judaism established a formalized system of prayer. While individuals retained the freedom to pray spontaneously, the rabbis introduced a structured framework to guide communal worship.

This system determined when prayers should occur, the places suitable for prayer, and the essential components of liturgical practice. By the end of the 2nd century C.E., this framework became standardized, ensuring that, despite variations across different Jewish communities, the core principles of prayer remained remarkably consistent until modern times.

Another cornerstone of Jewish practice is the observance of the Sabbath, a weekly day of rest and spiritual reflection. The Sabbath begins at sundown on Friday and concludes at nightfall on Saturday, commemorating God’s rest on the seventh day of creation. 

For many, the Sabbath is the pinnacle of the Jewish sacred calendar, distinguished as the only holy day explicitly referenced in the Ten Commandments — a day celebrated through the shared meal.

Nicholas de Lange observes the ritual importance of a meal in the Jewish tradition, noting:

Jewish festivals also play a significant role in the religious and cultural life of the community, marking sacred moments in history and the agricultural calendar. 

Among the most notable is Passover, which commemorates the Israelites’ liberation from slavery in Egypt. Central to this festival is the “seder,” a ritual meal that includes the retelling of the Exodus story.

Another major festival, the Day of Atonement (“Yom Kippur”), is a solemn occasion dedicated to fasting, prayer, and repentance, providing an opportunity for spiritual renewal. The joyous festival of Tabernacles (“Sukkot”) follows, celebrating the Israelites’ wilderness journey and God's provision.

Rituals and Practices in Christianity

The dimension of Christianity concerning rituals and practices is intrinsically tied to the person of Jesus who, for Christians, is the resurrected Son of God and the Messiah. This Christ-centered focus sets Christianity apart from other Abrahamic religions. 

One of the most significant Christian rituals is baptism, a sacrament that signifies the initiation of an individual into the faith. Rooted in the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, this ritual symbolizes purification, repentance, and rebirth.

Another central practice is the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion or the Lord’s Supper. This sacrament commemorates Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples, during which he broke bread and shared wine, instructing them to do so in remembrance of him.

In her book Christianity: A Very Short Introduction, Linda Woodhead explains:

Christian worship extends beyond sacraments to encompass various rituals and practices, including prayer, hymn singing, and scripture reading. Weekly worship services, typically held on Sunday to commemorate Jesus’ resurrection, serve as a communal gathering for reflection, teaching, and praise.

As you can probably deduce, Christian practices are, essentially, all about the extraordinary figure of Jesus and the belief system that evolved around him. That’s not the case with Islam at all! Let’s take a look. 

Rituals and Practices in Islam

In contrast to the other two Abrahamic religions, Islamic practices and rituals are structured around the Five Pillars, which define the core acts of worship and ethical conduct for Muslims.

While the first pillar affirms the central tenet of Islamic monotheism and Muhammad’s special place as the last prophet, the remaining four pillars — prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage — are explicitly tied to religious practice.

That’s the reason why most scholars define Islam as the religion of “orthopraxy.” In his book Islam: What Non-Muslims Should Know, John Kaltner notes: 

Prayer (“Salah”) is the most visible expression of Islamic devotion, performed five times a day at prescribed times. These prayers are highly ritualized, involving specific physical postures, recitations in Arabic, and a direction toward the Kaaba in Mecca.

The third pillar, “Zakat” (almsgiving), reflects Islam’s emphasis on social responsibility. Muslims are obligated to give a portion of their wealth to support the less fortunate, fostering economic equity and communal solidarity.

“In Islam,” Esposito explains, “the true owner of things is not man but God. People are given their wealth as a trust from God. Therefore, zakat is not viewed as 'charity'; it is an obligation for those who have received their wealth from God to respond to the needs of less fortunate members of the community.”

Similarly, fasting during the holy month of Ramadan (“Sawm”), the fourth pillar underscores self-discipline and empathy for those in need. From dawn until sunset, Muslims abstain from food, drink, and other physical needs, redirecting their focus toward prayer, reflection, and community.

Finally, the pilgrimage to Mecca (“Hajj”), the fifth pillar, is a profound demonstration of Islamic unity and devotion. Required of all Muslims who are physically and financially able, the Hajj involves a series of rituals performed in and around Mecca, commemorating key events in Islamic tradition.

“For Christians," Bernard Lewis notes, "pilgrimage to the holy places of their religion is, so to speak, an optional extra and may be performed at any time that is convenient. For Muslims, it is one of the five basic obligations of the faith and is incumbent on every Muslim who can afford it at least once in a lifetime.”

Abrahamic Religions: Chart

Before we conclude our exploration into the Abrahamic religions, below you can find a chart comparing their key beliefs. You can use it as a shortcut in your further discussions on the relationship between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam!

Conclusion

The Abrahamic religions are pillars of our cultural and religious history, closely intertwined through their common origins, but differing in their interpretations, practices, and theological frameworks. Their scriptures, beliefs, and rituals reflect both common roots and divergent paths, offering rich insights into the human search for meaning, moral direction, and connection to the divine.

These traditions have undoubtedly shaped the beliefs and values of billions, influencing societies across history and geography.

While their similarities provide a sense of unity, the differences among the Abrahamic religions underscore their unique identities and enduring individuality. Each tradition interprets its sacred texts and doctrines in ways that reflect specific historical contexts and theological emphases.

These variations, though they sometimes lead to tension, also enrich the broader discourse on faith, ethics, and cultural expression, highlighting the complexity and depth of these religious systems.

As Charles L. Cohen aptly concludes: 

Judaism Beliefs About God, Death, and the Afterlife

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Judaism is a religion deeply rooted in right practices, making it somewhat difficult to distill its essential beliefs. This focus on righteous living has shaped Jewish views on God, death, and the afterlife in unique ways.

In this article, I explore fundamental Judaism beliefs, tracing their development from ancient times through the Middle Ages and into the modern era. I also examine the diversity of Jewish thought, recognizing that there is no single, unified perspective within Jews’ religious tradition.

Judaism Practices vs. Beliefs

Before we talk about Judaism’s beliefs, we have to talk about the main emphasis in Judaism. As Rabbi Baruch HaLevi provocatively writes, “Judaism doesn’t care what you believe, but rather what you do.” In other words, while Judaism certainly has a variety of beliefs, as do all ancient religious traditions, actions are valued more. This is clear in an oft-quoted Hebrew Bible statement from Micah 6:8:

Christianity, on the other hand, while it certainly wants its adherents to follow the injunctions in Micah, also requires certain beliefs from its followers to an extent that is foreign to Judaism. This was the case from Christianity’s earliest centuries, when Christians battled over correct beliefs about the Trinity, the nature of Christ’s sacrifice, and many other topics. Evidence of these debates can still be found in many Christian churches where the Nicene Creed, a statement of defining beliefs formulated at the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, is often recited.

In fact, the term “heretic,” originally derived from the Greek word hairesis meaning “to choose,” came to mean someone who believed the wrong things in the context of early Christianity.

Having established that Judaism is, above all, a religion of right practice, let’s look at some of its basic beliefs. For an excellent comparison of Judaism and Christianity, see this article by Marko Marina.

Statements of Belief in Judaism

One of the earliest statements of Jewish belief can be found in a prayer called the Shema from Deuteronomy 6:4: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord alone.” This, by the way, is the translation from the NRSV updated version. The Hebrew word translated as “the Lord alone” can also be translated as “the Lord is one,”which has long been the most common English translation. However, there are reasons for thinking that “the Lord alone” is a better translation.

Primarily, we see multiple examples in the Hebrew Bible, proving that many of the authors were not actually monotheists. That is, they fully believed in the existence of other gods but thought their God was the greatest. This is called henotheism and seems to be a more accurate reading of early Jewish beliefs about God. For more on this topic, see The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel by Mark Smith.

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For example, in Psalms 82:1, it says “God has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods he holds judgment.” Clearly, the author of this psalm believed there were many gods, although Yahweh was the head of the council. In Judges 11:24, Jephthah, an Israelite warrior, says this to the king of the Ammonites:

Jephthah believes that Chemosh is a real, existing god. So one of the earliest statements of Jewish belief, the Shema, which devout Jews still pray daily, merely says that Jews are only to worship Yahweh rather than the gods of other peoples.

Most of the rest of the Hebrew Bible contains injunctions for how the Jews should worship and treat each other — that is, practices required by God. When Moses receives the Torah or Law from God on Mount Sinai, it is viewed as a gift from God in that it tells them how to live. As early Judaism developed into rabbinic Judaism by the end of the 1st century CE, interpreting and following the Torah’s commandments became its defining principle and remains so to this day.

If we skip many centuries ahead, however, we do get a statement of Judaism beliefs about God and associated subjects by one of the most influential Jewish philosophers in history. The Spanish rabbi Moses ben Maimon, also known as Maimonides (1135-1204 CE) wrote a statement of 13 essential Jewish beliefs, likely in response to the developing theologies of Christianity and Islam. They are as follows (translation from Jews, Church & Civilization by David Birnbaum):

1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.

2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.

3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.

4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.

5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.

6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.

7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him.

8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.

10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalm 33:15).

11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.

12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.

13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.

Notice that many of these beliefs center around monotheism, which had become central to Judaism long before Maimonides. Others focus on the validity of Torah and the necessity of following its commandments, the notion that the Messiah was still coming — since most Jews did not (and do not) believe that Jesus was the Messiah — and the coming resurrection (more on that later).

These statements of belief were certainly influential in Judaism, but were not universally accepted. This brings us to more specific Jewish beliefs and the fact that there is not one central Judaism but many Judaisms (just as there are many Christianities and many Islams). Let’s look at some examples of the varieties of Jewish beliefs.

Judaism Beliefs About God

As I said above, the earliest Jews believed that while many gods existed, their God, Yahweh, was the most important and powerful. This developed eventually into strict monotheism, the notion that Yahweh is the only God that exists, a belief that most Jews continue to hold. It’s important to note, by the way, that God’s name in Judaism — four consonants, YHWH, known as the tetragrammaton — is considered so holy that it should never be uttered. Instead, when Jews encounter the name in a reading, they say “Adonai,” the Hebrew word for Lord.

In a very general sense, several qualities are ascribed to God across the varieties of Judaism. First, God is the Creator, having created everything that exists. Second, God is omniscient, or all-seeing. There have been numerous debates for centuries, by the way, about whether this means that God has perfect foreknowledge of all human actions.

Third, God is omnipotent or all-powerful, although some modern Jewish theologians, such as Geoffrey Claussen, have argued against this notion. Those who believe in God’s omnipotence, however, also believe God has the ability and the inclination to intervene in the world. Fourth, God is incorporeal or bodiless and, despite the Hebrew Bible’s characterization of God as male, is not gendered. In The Aryeh Kaplan Reader, Rabbi Arya Kaplan writes that "the fact that we always refer to God as ‘He’ is also not meant to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God."

Fifth, God is unimaginable. In other words, God is so different from anything in normal human experience, that people cannot even conceive of him. It is for this reason that Judaism is aniconic, meaning it forbids depictions of God. To depict God would be to ignore his total otherness and even to limit him.

There is much more that can be said about God in Judaism, but these characteristics are generally upheld by most Jewish sects.

Judaism Beliefs About Death

In distinguishing between beliefs about death in Judaism and Christianity, the first thing to note is that Jews view death as a natural part of life. Christians, on the other hand, often interpret the story of Adam and Eve in Genesis as the beginning of death for human beings, which is seen as a tragedy. In other words, humans were not meant to die before the sin of Adam and Eve ushered in that inevitability.

In his book The Jewish Book of Why, Rabbi Alfred Kolatch writes that Judaism values life above all else. In fact, the Talmud, a compilation of authoritative Jewish teachings, says that, since all people are descended from one person, taking a human life is akin to destroying an entire world, while saving a life is like saving an entire world.

Because of this value for life, there are a lot of Jewish practices around mourning. Rabbi Kolatch writes that their purpose is twofold: First, to show deep respect for the dead and second, to comfort the living. The first set of practices involves caring for the body of the deceased.

After a person dies, their body is not to be left alone until the burial. Those who sit with the body are called shomerim meaning “watchers” or “guards.” These people cannot eat or drink in the presence of the dead body because to do so would be considered mocking the dead who can no longer do these things. This implies that in some sense, the person is still present.

Being in the presence of a corpse is a cause of ritual impurity for Jews, so those who have been in the body’s presence after death must ritually wash their hands before entering a home to avoid passing the impurity to others.

The deceased body is washed and wrapped in a plain shroud so that there is no distinction in death between rich and poor. The same goes for the coffin which must be equally plain. The body cannot be embalmed and no organs may be removed. It must then be buried, never cremated.

This meticulous care for the corpse is in sharp contrast to most Christian burial practices, which conform more to modern standards of burial regardless of religion.

Next, there are seven days of mourning called “sitting shiva” (shiva is Hebrew for seven). The mourning practices are extensive, which also contrasts with the informal mourning of most Christian burials.

All of this shows that since life is so important, the end of it must be marked properly to grant the deepest respect to the dead and to console those who remain behind. But what does Judaism say about the afterlife?

Judaism Beliefs About the Afterlife

Our earliest evidence for Judaism beliefs about afterlife specifics comes from the Hebrew Bible, although they are quite vague. The Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, mentions a destination of the dead called Sheol, a shadowy place, not unlike the Greek Hades, where all people go after death (see Num. 16:33, Ps. 6:6, Isa. 38:18). Genesis 5:24, on the other hand, speaking about Noah’s great-grandfather Enoch, says “Enoch walked with God; then he was no more, because God took him.” We aren’t told where God took him, but it’s clear that he didn’t just die. Similarly, in 2 Kings 2:11, we are told that the prophet Elijah was taken into the sky in a chariot of fire.

All these references make clear that there was belief in some sort of afterlife, but it is never fully explained or described. However, in his book Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People and Its History, Rabbi Joseph Telushkin notes that in the later Second Temple period (539 BCE- 136 CE), there were two competing Jewish notions of the afterlife. One was a heavenly reward, either for all of Israel or for the righteous only, and the other was a general resurrection of the dead.

For example, the book of 4 Maccabees promises that the souls of Jewish martyrs will have everlasting life. 2 Maccabees, on the other hand, looks forward to the resurrection of these martyrs instead.

Finally, with the development of rabbinic Judaism, some rabbis said that when a person died, the soul left the body but maintained a temporary relationship to it for the first year, coming and going until the body had disintegrated. This might suggest one reason for having such care and respect for the corpse in modern Jewish practice.

However, in the Talmud, one passage says that this first year after death is also a kind of purgatory  for the soul. After this first year, the souls of the righteous go to paradise, called Gan Eden, and the wicked to hell, called Geihinnom. One passage in the Talmud says that condemnation in the afterlife is eternal, while another says “There will be no Gehinnom in future times,” leaving the possibility that divine punishment is merely temporary.

Modern Jewish views of the afterlife vary widely. As professor Amy-Jill Levine writes, “Jewish beliefs in the afterlife are as diverse as Judaism itself, from the traditional view expecting the unity of flesh and spirit in a resurrected body, to the idea that we live on in our children and grandchildren, to a sense of heaven.” In other words, just as there is no one Judaism for all Jews, there is no single doctrine of the afterlife in which all Jews believe.

The only point on which the majority of Jews agree, however, is that any afterlife reward is due to right actions rather than right beliefs.

Conclusion

In Judaism, practices and actions are far more important than beliefs. Jews are required to follow the commandments in the Torah to the best of their ability and follow the injunctions from the Hebrew Bible — do justice, love kindness, and walk humbly with God.

Since this is the case, nailing down Judaism beliefs before the Middle Ages is difficult. Many would say that the foundational one was monotheism, but the Hebrew Bible makes clear that early Jews believed their God was simply the most powerful among many gods, a belief known as henotheism.

In the Middle Ages, Jewish philosopher Maimonides outlined 13 Jewish beliefs in response to similar lists by Christians and Muslims. However, this did not result in a widespread consensus, and future Jewish thinkers continued to debate about what would constitute essential Jewish beliefs.

Nevertheless, we can generally say that most forms of Judaism view God as all-seeing and all-powerful and view death as extremely significant because of the great value of life. When it comes to the afterlife, however, there are diverse opinions, ranging from heavenly rewards and eternal damnation to purgatorial periods and the resurrection of bodies which reunite with souls.

When Was Judaism Founded? (TIMELINE)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

When was Judaism founded? The answer is a complex and elusive one, as it intertwines centuries of evolving religious practices, beliefs, and historical events. To understand the roots of Judaism, one must consider the gradual development of its core elements.

In this article, I’ll explore how ancient beliefs evolved into the complex religious tradition we recognize today. Through examining key historical and archaeological evidence, I’ll piece together the timeline of Judaism’s origins and clarify the forces that shaped it over millennia.

When Was Judaism Founded? Iron Age Yahwism?

As people learn more about this topic, they often want specifics. For example, what date was Judaism founded? As with any ancient religion, answering that question is all but impossible. Religions develop over centuries, leaving historians with massive heaps of data, much of it mythical, with which to answer the question of their origins. Therefore, the best that we can do is to identify an approximate era in which the religion now known as Judaism was founded. But what exactly is Judaism?

In A Short History of Judaism, Jacob Neusner defines Judaism as consisting of three essential elements. the study of the written Torah, the recognition of Jews as a chosen people to whom the Torah was granted by God, and the obligation for Jews to follow the commandments of the written Torah. Neusner goes on to write that these basic elements have their roots in the Iron Age (1200-550 BCE) in a proto-Judaism called Yahwism, named for its God.

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In his book Jerusalem the Center of the Universe: Its Archaeology and History (1800-100 BCE), archeologist Israel Finkelstein notes that Yahwism had its beginnings in the 9th century BCE, when the originally Canaanite kingdoms of Israel and Judah both claimed Yahweh as their chief God. However, in the 8th century, these kingdoms were conquered by the Assyrian empire. When the kingdom of Israel attempted to rebel against the Assyrians, it was destroyed, with survivors migrating to Judah.

In Monotheism and Yahweh's Appropriation of Baal, James Anderson writes that Canaanite kingdoms such as Israel and Judah were each thought to be governed by divine couples, as well as a number of lesser gods; in the case of Israel and Judah, this couple consisted of Yahweh and his consort Asherah. Eventually, belief in Asherah and the lesser gods faded in importance. By the time that the Assyrian empire disintegrated around 631 BCE, Yahweh alone was the God of the Jews.

Anderson also notes that in the process of whittling down their gods to one, the Israelites appropriated the positive characteristics of other gods, attributing these solely to Yahweh. While this was an important step toward the eventual development of Judaism’s monotheism, this Yahweh-alone movement was not yet entirely monotheistic. In fact, in On the Origins of Judaism, Philip Davies writes that even at this time, the religion of the people of Israel and Judah could not be called Judaism as we know it. Instead, he argues that many were still worshiping multiple gods and probably lacked a written Torah.

When Did Judaism Actually Start? The Second Temple Period?

The Babylonian empire destroyed the Judean city of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. The wealthiest and most educated survivors of Judah were subsequently taken into captivity in Babylon. However, in 539 BCE, the Babylonians were conquered by the Persian empire, allowing any exiles who wanted to return to Judah to do so. After 50 years, those who returned were likely not the original exiles, and after living so long in Babylon, it’s unlikely that the majority chose to return.

In Biblical History and Israel’s Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History, Megan Bishop Moore and Brad Kelle note that while these returnees were indeed the descendants of the Yahweh-alone movement, their religion was still not entirely recognizable as the Judaism that would later develop.

These people had a more developed idea of priesthood than their predecessors, a prohibition on marrying non-Israelites to maintain purity, and a new focus on Scripture. In fact, much of the Hebrew Bible was written and assembled during this period. Because of this, the majority of scholars since the 20th century have asserted that widespread observance of the Torah’s commandments began during this period.

However, there are several recent dissenters. For example, in The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal, Yonatan Adler has this to say:

Adler thus argues that widespread commitment to following the commandments of the Torah only began during the Hasmonean dynasty at the earliest (140 BCE-37 CE). Israel Finkelstein, mentioned above, entirely agrees with this position based on the archeological evidence.

When Was Judaism Founded? Rabbinic Judaism?

When modern people speak about Judaism, we generally mean Rabbinic Judaism, which contains all three of the elements from Jacob Neusner’s definition above. However, this type of Judaism, which continues in multiple forms today, only began to develop after Rome’s destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE. This coincides, by the way, with the development of Christianity, which, in 70 CE, was simply another sect of Judaism, according to Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A. D. 70 to 135 by James D.G. Dunn.

Leading up to 70 CE, Jewish religion was divided between competing sects, including the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes, among others. When the Temple, the center of Jewish religious practice, was destroyed, the emphasis in Judaism shifted from sacrifice to Scripture. The surviving Jewish sects, namely Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity, then developed on parallel tracks. In fact, some scholars, such as Daniel Boyarin in his book Border Lines: The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity, have argued that Judaism and Christianity were not entirely separated until at least the 4th century CE.

Key to the development of Rabbinic Judaism were a group of later Torah scholars known as the Amoraim, writing between 200 CE and 500 CE in Babylon and Israel. They developed and wrote the commandments and legal interpretations known as the Oral Torah, which is said to have been commandments given to Moses at the same time as the written Torah but not recorded in as text until the Amoraim came along.

How Old is Judaism? Biblical Founders of Judaism

Three of the biblical figures most important for the foundations of Judaism and Jewish identity are Abraham, Moses, and David. For historians, however, taking these figures and the biblical stories about them at face value isn’t always an option.

Abraham is said to be the father of the Jews, as well as of Christians and Muslims. In Genesis, God tells him to leave his own land and go to Canaan, where he will found a new nation. For a very long time, biblical scholars accepted the reality of Abraham as a historical figure. However, in What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archaeology Can Tell Us about the Reality of Ancient Israel, William Dever writes that by the beginning of the 21st century, most scholars believed Abraham to be a legendary figure based on the total lack of evidence for him outside of the Bible.

The situation with Moses is similar. While Moses is incredibly important in the founding story of Judaism, scholars have yet to find any archeological evidence of his existence. Dever writes that based on this total lack of extrabiblical proof, the scholarly consensus is that Moses was also a literary invention.

David is a slightly different story, however. In the Bible, he is said to have been a great king who united Israel and Judah into one mighty kingdom. However, outside the Bible, no writings from other cultures mention him. Unlike Abraham and Moses, however, there is some archeological evidence for his existence.

In 1993, a commemorative stone called the Tel Dan stele was discovered in Israel. The inscription on the stele, written by a king of Damascus named Hazael in the 9th century to memorialize his victory over enemy kings, contains a phrase many scholars have translated as “House of David”, likely a reference to the kingdom of Judah. Other possible references to the House of David have been theorized in readings of inscriptions, but only the Tel Dan stele has been confirmed as a reference to David.

It is likely, therefore, that David did exist, but based on archeological evidence, Israel Finkelstein believes that the portrayal of David as a mighty king of a great nation is inaccurate. In David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition, Finkelstein writes that the Judah of David’s time had a very low population and that Jerusalem was a small village, rather than a great city. He therefore concludes that rather than the king of a great nation, David was the chief of a relatively small population.

The evidence for these legendary figures does not stand up to modern historical scrutiny.

Conclusion: When Did Judaism Actually Start?

When was Judaism founded? No religion can be dated to one specific point in time. Instead, religions are the products of years and years of changing culture, ideas and practices.

Jacob Neusner defined Judaism by claiming that it contains three basic elements: the study of the written Torah, the recognition of Jews as a chosen people to whom God gave the written Torah, and the duty to follow the commandments of that written Torah. However, even by this definition, it’s not entirely clear when Judaism began.

The earliest roots of Judaism, Iron Age Yahwism, began in the 9th century when Israel and Judah took Yahweh as their national God. However, they also took the goddess Asherah as Yahweh’s consort, a common practice within the Canaanite societies from which they emerged. While this would eventually lead to Jews committing only to Yahweh, there was likely no written Torah yet.

Following the exile in Babylon, some descendants of these Yahweh-only Jews returned to Jerusalem to rebuild their religion. There was a new emphasis on the priesthood and Scripture, as well as prohibitions on marrying non-Jews. However, this was probably still not the Torah-observant Judaism we know today.

Instead, some modern scholars argue that widespread observance of the Torah’s commandments only began between 140 BCE and 37 BCE. According to these scholars, this was the beginning of Judaism as we know it, and it contains all of Neusner’s elements.

However, perhaps Judaism only really began with the advent of Rabbinic Judaism, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Surviving Jews shifted their religious focus from the Temple to texts, spurring a long history of competing interpretations of the Torah which continues today.

Judaism vs Christianity: 10 Important Differences (CHART)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Religion is a central feature of human life and culture, shaping societies and influencing countless aspects of human behavior and thought. As Mircea Eliade observed years ago, it’s fundamentally the experience of the sacred — a means by which individuals connect to something transcendent and, in doing so, engage with what it means to be profoundly human.

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In the Western world, much of the cultural and philosophical framework rests upon the influence of three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Among these, Judaism and Christianity share a particularly intricate relationship. 

Exploring Judaism vs. Christianity not only highlights the historical and theological ties between the two but also reveals the distinctive features that have come to define them as separate religious traditions.

Understanding the difference between Judaism and Christianity, therefore, requires examining their similarities as well as their distinctions. Both traditions trace their origins to the ancient Near East, center their beliefs on a single deity, and share a reverence for the sacred texts of the Hebrew Bible.

Yet, their paths diverge significantly in their understandings of the Scripture, rituals, social organization, and theological concepts, such as the nature of God, salvation, and the role of religious leadership.

This article seeks to provide a thoughtful and scholarly comparison of these two influential traditions. By exploring 12 shared foundations and identifying 10 differences between Judaism and Christianity, we aim to foster a deeper appreciation for the complexities of these two religious traditions. 

Judaism vs. Christianity: The Value of the Comparative Approach

Religion is a concept that seems, at first glance, deceptively simple to define. Yet, its broad, inclusive nature makes pinning it down one of the more challenging exercises in religious studies.

Every semester, I put my students to the test in my lecture on religion in the Roman world. I ask them to write a short definition of what they think religion is. At first, their pens fly confidently across the paper — until they pause, frown, and realize that they have just ventured into murky waters. The realization that defining religion is more difficult than they imagined always brings a dose of humor to the classroom.

It’s not just a fun exercise, though; it’s an effective way to illustrate that religion, in its many forms, defies simple categorization. This very challenge lies at the heart of the comparative study of religion, where scholars grapple with definitions that are inclusive of the vast diversity of religious traditions.

Furthermore, the comparative approach to the study of religion provides a way to navigate this complexity. By examining religions side by side, scholars can identify both overarching structures and unique characteristics.

This method helps illuminate commonalities that unite religious traditions, while highlighting key differences that distinguish them. For example, in the case of Judaism vs. Christianity, a comparative lens reveals the shared heritage of these two monotheistic faiths while also exposing profound divergences.

In his book When Religion Becomes Evil, Charles Kimball notes the benefits of the comparative approach: 

One essential aspect of this comparative endeavor is recognizing the role of subjectivity. As we examine the 10 differences between Judaism and Christianity, it’s important to acknowledge that we, as observers, aren’t entirely free of biases.

Sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, in their seminal work The Social Construction of Reality, famously emphasized that every individual is shaped by their upbringing, religious tradition, and cultural context. 

These influences color the way we perceive and analyze any phenomena, including religion. So, while objectivity remains the goal, awareness of our subjectivity ensures a more balanced and reflective approach.

The comparative study of religion, therefore, invites us to challenge our assumptions. By exploring similarities and differences between Judaism and Christianity, we gain insights not only into these religions but the broader human experience.

With that foundation in mind, we now turn our attention to the similarities between Judaism and Christianity, examining the shared features that connect these two influential traditions.

Judaism vs. Christianity: Similarities

In a valuable collection of essays Religions of the World, Niels C. Nielsen identifies twelve common characteristics found across most religious traditions, including Judaism and Christianity. 

His insights offer a useful framework for understanding these two Biblical religions and provide an excellent starting point for our exploration of Judaism vs. Christianity. Let’s take a look! 

#1 – Belief in the Supernatural and Ultimate Reality

Both Judaism and Christianity assert belief in the supernatural, including God, angels, and an ultimate reality that transcends human existence while remaining deeply connected to it. 

Judaism's journey toward monotheism, as Benjamin D. Sommer has noted, took shape during and after the Babylonian exile in the 6th century B.C.E. Before this period, its theology exhibited clear polytheistic tendencies, but over time, socio-political and religious factors solidified the assertion of one God.

Similarly, Christianity emerged from this monotheistic framework, embracing the God of the Old Testament while adding distinctive theological dimensions. As Larry Hurtado observes in his acclaimed book Lord Jesus Christ:

#2 – The Sacred vs. the Profane

Both religions distinguish between the sacred and the profane. By “profane,” I don’t mean “dirty,” but “ordinary” and “everyday.” Both Judaism and Christianity assign special significance to specific times, places, objects, and people. 

A good example of this is how both religions have holy days and sacred time. In Christianity, Christmas and Easter are the most sacred days in the calendar, commemorating the birth and resurrection of Jesus.

In Judaism, sacred times include the High Holy Days of Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish New Year) and Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement), as well as Passover, which recalls the Exodus from Egypt.

#3 – Ritual Activities

Prescribed rituals form an essential part of both traditions, fostering a sense of community and connection with the divine. Judaism emphasizes practices such as observing the Sabbath, kosher dietary laws, and rituals like circumcision and bar mitzvah ceremonies.

Christianity similarly incorporates rituals including baptism, the Eucharist, and weekly worship gatherings, reflecting its roots in Jewish liturgical traditions.

#4 – Moral Codes and Ethical Principles

Most religions commonly promote a moral code or ethical principles to guide individuals and communities. How does that reflect within our Judaism vs. Christianity exploration?

A central feature of Judaism and Christianity is their shared moral framework, anchored in the Ten Commandments. These commandments outline ethical responsibilities toward God and fellow human beings, forming the bedrock of legal and moral systems in both traditions.

#5 – Religious Emotions and Intuitions

The religious life of Christians and Jews often incorporates common emotional and intuitive human feelings. These feelings include a sense of the wonder and mystery of existence, joy, and guilt, but also a profound sense of loss (in the case of apostasy!).

As Rabbi David Wolpe notes in his book Why Faith Matters (reflecting on the time when he lost his faith): 

#6 – Communication With the Divine

Prayer, both individual and communal, serves as a primary means of connecting with the divine in Judaism and Christianity. From the Shema in Jewish worship to the Lord’s Prayer in Christianity, both traditions emphasize direct communication with God as central to religious life.

#7 – Sacred Stories and Scripture

Both traditions provide a coherent worldview through sacred stories rooted in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity’s narrative builds upon this foundation, reinterpreting the Scriptures in light of the life and teachings of Jesus.

Furthermore, sacred stories, often referred to as myths in the study of comparative religion, are foundational elements of all religious traditions. In this context, the term “myth” doesn’t imply something false or untrue; rather, it denotes a sacred narrative that holds profound truth for those who embrace it.

Creation myths, while not the only type of sacred story, are among the most prevalent. Within the framework of our Judaism vs. Christianity discussion, the Book of Genesis and its two accounts of the creation of the world serve as prime examples.

In The Power of Myth, Joseph Campbell identified four main functions of sacred stories:

#8 – Life Organization

Judaism and Christianity influence personal and communal life through guidelines on dress, sacrifices, and occupations. For instance, Jewish traditions include distinct dress codes, such as wearing the kippah or tzitzit, while monasticism in Christianity demonstrates a commitment to simplicity and religious devotion through specific attire and ascetic practices.

#9 – Social Organization and Institutions

Both traditions rely on organized structures to sustain worship and leadership. Judaism’s emphasis on the synagogue and rabbinic leadership parallels Christianity’s development of church hierarchies.

As explored in my dissertation (which I plan to publish in English as well), the success of early Christianity’s proto-orthodoxy, for instance, was deeply tied to its strong institutional framework.

#10 – Inner Peace and Harmony

Despite life’s challenges, both traditions offer adherents a sense of peace and meaning. Whether through prayer, scripture, or community support, Judaism and Christianity provide tools for navigating suffering and injustice.

#11 – Future Hope

Hope for a better future is integral to both traditions. Christianity emphasizes the Second Coming of Jesus, while Judaism awaits the arrival of the Messiah — a concept that has sustained Jewish communities through centuries of trials.

#12 – Sustainability and Growth

And finally, following Nielsen's insights, we come to the last similarity between Judaism and Christianity: The sustainability of contemporary religions. 

As Nielsen explains, religions must propagate themselves through the recruitment of new members and/or procreation within the community of faith. 

In the case of Christianity, missionary impulse represents one of its most significant traits — one that, as Martin Goodman explored, wasn't common at all within the Jewish tradition! However, Judaism still propagates itself through marriage and procreation within the community, which serve as the primary sources of new adherents.

After exploring shared characteristics, let us turn our focus to 10 differences between Judaism and Christianity. 

10 Differences Between Judaism and Christianity

A comparative approach to the study of religion, while insightful, has its limitations, particularly when differences between traditions are overlooked or oversimplified. 

Assumptions, such as equating Jesus and Muhammad as “founders” with similar roles or interpreting Old Testament prophets like Isaiah in the same way within Judaism and Christianity, can lead to misconceptions.

To avoid such pitfalls, the following section highlights 10 differences between Judaism and Christianity, shedding light on their distinctive practices, assumptions, and interpretations of sacred scripture.

#1 – View of Jesus: God’s Messiah vs. False Messiah

Jesus’ role and identity stand as one of the most significant differences between Judaism and Christianity. Within the Christian tradition, Jesus is regarded as the resurrected Son of God, the Messiah who fulfills Old Testament prophecies. Furthermore, Christians believe that through his death and resurrection, Jesus redeemed humanity.

Referring to the second section of the Nicene Creed, Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI) asserts in his Introduction to Christianity: 

In contrast, Judaism doesn’t recognize Jesus as the Messiah or as the divine Son of God. In the early decades of Christianity, there were Judeo-Christian groups who held these views while remaining fully immersed in Jewish religious practices. However, during the first several centuries they were marginalized as the parting of the ways between Judaism and Christianity set clear boundaries. 

Today, the Jewish understanding of the Messiah typically involves a future figure who will restore Israel, bring peace, and establish God’s Kingdom of Earth. Since Jesus didn’t fulfill these expectations during his lifetime, Jewish tradition views him as a respected teacher but not as the awaited redeemer.

In the article published in the Jewish Journal, David Wolpe explains it in simple terms: 

Needless to say, this fundamental divergence shapes the theological, philosophical, and liturgical framework of both religions. Finally, if you want to find out more about the Jewish perspective on Jesus, I highly recommend Jacob Neusner’s book A Rabbi Talks with Jesus.

#2 – Sacred Texts: Torah and Talmud vs. Old and New Testaments

Both Judaism and Christianity are, as Harry Y. Gamble notes, religions deeply immersed in the written texts. However, their scriptural canons differ significantly. 

Judaism’s primary sacred texts include the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible traditionally believed to be written by Moses, the Nevi’im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). These parts, formalized by the end of the 2nd century, form the collection known as Tanakh. 

Christianity, while sharing the Old Testament as part of its canon, incorporates the New Testament as a foundational component. 

The New Testament contains the Gospels, which recount the life and teachings of Jesus, as well as letters and writings that interpret his significance within the early Christian community. These additional texts reframe the Hebrew Bible in light of Jesus' ministry, creating distinct Christian theological lenses.

In Introduction to Christianity, Mary J. Weaver and David Brakke summarize the key difference between Judaism and Christianity in their approach to the Sacred Scripture: 

#3 – Concept of God: Strict Monotheism vs. Trinitarian Theology

Both Judaism and Christianity affirm belief in one God, yet their conceptualizations of God diverge significantly.

Judaism adheres to strict monotheism, emphasizing the indivisible unity of God as proclaimed in the Shema: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deuteronomy 6:4). In his book Jewish Literacy, Joseph Teluskhin notes the significance of monotheism within the Jewish history:

Christianity also proclaims monotheism but, based on their belief in Jesus’ resurrection, introduces the doctrine of the Trinity. This doctrine (hard to understand from a purely logical perspective) posits that God exists as one being in three distinct persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. 

While Christians maintain that this doesn’t compromise monotheism, this theological development marks a major departure from Jewish thought, which views such beliefs as incompatible with the uniqueness of God. 

For instance, early rabbinic sources, as Alan F. Segal explored, highlight a strong polemic against the so-called “two powers” heretics that Segal identifies as both Gnostics and (“orthodox”) Christians.

This label comes exactly from the perceived violation of strict monotheism either by introducing Jesus as the divine Son (“orthodox” Christians) or by envisioning another (evil) divine being responsible for the creation of the material world (Gnostics).

#4 - Salvation: Works and Covenant vs. Grace and Faith

In our exploration of the Judaism vs. Christianity debate, we see another major difference between these two important religious traditions. 

In Judaism, salvation is often understood in collective terms, focusing on the covenantal relationship between God and the Jewish people. Adherents seek to live by God’s laws, as expressed in the Torah, and maintain the covenant through acts of righteousness and ritual observance. 

Christianity, on the other hand, emphasizes salvation as an act of divine grace made possible through faith in the resurrected Jesus. According to Christian theology, humans are inherently sinful and incapable of achieving salvation through their efforts.

Instead, Jesus’ sacrificial death and resurrection (along with good deeds, according to the Catholic tradition!) provide the means for redemption, and individuals must accept this gift through their faith. 

#5 – Ritual Practices: Kosher Laws and Festivals vs. Sacraments

Ritual observances play a vital role in both Judaism and Christianity, yet their forms and emphases vary greatly. Judaism prescribes detailed ritual practices, such as dietary laws (keeping kosher), observing the Sabbath, and celebrating festivals like Passover and Yom Kippur.

In Living Judaism, Rabbi Wayne Dosick explains:

In contrast, Christian ritual practices center on sacraments, with baptism and the Eucharist being the most universally observed. These sacraments symbolize spiritual transformation and communion with God through Jesus Christ.

While some Christian denominations (e.g. Eastern Orthodoxy) observe additional sacraments (e.g. confirmation), these rituals often reflect the theological focus on grace and personal faith rather than adherence to a detailed legal code. 

#6 – Worship Spaces: Synagogues vs. Churches

The central places of worship highlight one important difference between Judaism and Christianity. Synagogues serve as the primary communal spaces for Jewish worship, study, and community gatherings. 

Historically, they emerged during the Babylonian exile as a substitute for the Jerusalem Temple. Furthermore, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E. and the expulsion of the Jews from Palestine in 135 C.E., synagogues became centers for Jewish worship, prayer, and contemplation. 

Modern synagogues continue to emphasize these functions, with services often centered on reciting prayers, reading the Torah, and fostering community bonds.

In contrast, Christian churches are designed primarily for communal worship centered on Jesus Christ, his redemptive death, and resurrection. Historically, private homes first served as the gathering hubs. Later on (and especially after Constantine’s conversion), churches became independent buildings, serving their religious purpose.

Church services often include preaching, prayer, singing hymns, and celebrating sacraments like the Eucharist. The architectural and symbolic elements of churches — such as the altar, cross, and stained-glass windows — reflect the Christian focus on Jesus’ redemptive role.

#7 – Clergy: Rabbis vs. Priests/Pastors 

The roles and functions of religious leaders in Judaism and Christianity demonstrate another key distinction between the two traditions. The role of the rabbi has evolved significantly in Judaism, especially after 135 C.E. with the emergence of rabbinic Judaism. 

In Judaism, the rabbi is primarily a teacher and interpreter of Jewish law (Halakha). Rabbis lead synagogue services, guide their communities, and provide counsel, but their authority derives from their expertise in the Torah and rabbinic tradition rather than a formal ordination that confers spiritual powers.

Notably, a rabbi’s presence isn’t required for a Jewish community to hold a service; any group of responsible individuals can come together to form a community and conduct worship! 

Christian clergy, such as priests and pastors, often have a more sacramental role. In Protestant Christianity, for instance, Anglican and Baptist clergy frame the High and Low Church traditions. 

The primary function of the clergy in the Low Church tradition is less related to ritual activity and more connected to the proclamation of the Gospel. In the High Church tradition (including Catholicism), the focus of the clergy is on celebrating the sacraments, such as Mass or the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist). 

#8 – Covenants: Abrahamic Covenant vs. New Covenant

The concept of a covenant — a sacred agreement between God and humanity — is central to both Judaism and Christianity, yet the nature of these covenants differs significantly.

Judaism emphasizes the Abrahamic covenant, which establishes the Jewish people’s unique relationship with God. This covenant is marked by circumcision, adherence to the Torah, and the promise of land and blessings in return for faithfulness to God’s commandments.

Dosick explains the historical origin of this belief: 

Christianity builds on this concept with the idea of the New Covenant, inaugurated through Jesus Christ. Christians believe that Jesus’ death and resurrection fulfilled and transformed the earlier covenants, offering salvation and eternal life to all who have faith in him.

Weaver and Brakke provide one notable example:

#9 – Afterlife Beliefs: Varied Views in Judaism vs. Heaven (Purgatory) and Hell

Judaism and Christianity offer distinct perspectives on the afterlife. In Judaism, beliefs about the afterlife are diverse and not as central to religious practice as they are in Christianity.

As Dosick, referring to the belief in the afterlife, notes: 

Jewish teachings range from ideas of resurrection and the World to Come (“Olam Ha-Ba”) to more ambiguous notions of an enduring connection with God.

Christianity places a stronger emphasis on the afterlife, particularly the concepts of heaven and hell. Historically, these concepts, as Bart D. Ehrman explored in his book Heaven and Hell, evolved under the influence of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition and Greco-Roman philosophical (Platonic) worldview. 

During the Middle Ages, a concept of purgatory also emerged. In his seminal book La Naissance du purgatoire (The Birth of the Purgatory), Jacques Le Goeff traces its formalization to the end of the 12th century when theological, social, and cultural shifts within the Catholic Church led to a clearer articulation of purgatory as an intermediary state between heaven and hell.

The resurrection of the dead and the final judgment, central to Christian beliefs about the afterlife, offer a framework for understanding what lies beyond death, famously described in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” as the “undiscovered country from whose bourn no traveler returns.”

#10 – Missionary Focus: Non-Proselytizing vs. Evangelical Emphasis 

With this list entry, we come to the last of the 10 differences between Judaism and Christianity! As it turns out, these religious traditions differ in their approaches to spreading their faith. 

Judaism isn’t a missionary religion and doesn’t actively seek to convert non-Jews. Instead, it focuses on preserving its traditions and identity through family, community, and education. Conversion to Judaism is possible, but it requires a deliberate and rigorous process.

Christianity, by contrast, has a strong evangelical impulse rooted in Jesus’ command to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19) and, as Bart D. Ehrman showed in Triumph of Christianity, its apocalyptic origins.

From the early church to modern missionary movements, Christians have sought to share their faith widely, often adapting their message to different cultural contexts. This emphasis on evangelism has been a defining feature of Christianity throughout its history and underscores our final difference in the Judaism vs. Christianity exploration.

Judaism vs. Christianity Chart

We know comparing complex religious traditions like Judaism and Christianity can feel overwhelming, so we’ve done the heavy lifting for you! Below, you’ll find a concise chart summarizing the differences between Judaism and Christianity.

Think of it as your quick reference guide to impressing friends at dinner parties — or perhaps just understanding these traditions more clearly!

Judaism and Christianity vs. Hinduism and Buddhism

Before concluding our exploration of the differences between Judaism and Christianity, we decided to give a glimpse of two other major religious traditions: Hinduism and Buddhism. Why? 

Well, Rudyard Kipling’s well-known line, “East is East and West is West and never the twain shall meet,” might have reflected the realities of the 19th century, but it no longer holds in our interconnected, globalized world. 

Today, North, South, East, and West have merged in ways Kipling could never have envisioned. It’s now common to see Buddhists and Hindus practicing their faiths in Western countries.

Even in a predominantly Catholic nation like Croatia, where I live, one can encounter individuals openly embracing Buddhism and Hinduism as part of their lives. This vibrant diversity, in my view, is one of the greatest privileges of living in the 21st century and is reason enough to briefly acknowledge how these two religions differ from Judaism and Christianity. So, let’s take a look! 

Judaism and Christianity, as monotheistic traditions rooted in the belief in one God, differ fundamentally from Hinduism and Buddhism, which take diverse approaches to the divine. 

Hinduism, with its polytheistic tendencies and belief in a cosmic order (“dharma”), incorporates gods, avatars, and the ultimate reality of Brahman, while Buddhism generally sidesteps theistic frameworks, focusing instead on the Four Noble Truths and the path to enlightenment (“nirvana”).

Unlike the linear view of history and salvation in Judaism and Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism emphasize cycles of rebirth (“samsara”) and liberation (“moksha” or “nirvana”). Additionally, while rituals and communal worship are central in Judaism and Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism place significant focus on meditation, self-discipline, and individual spiritual practices.

Conclusion: Judaism vs. Christianity

Judaism and Christianity, while sharing a common heritage, reflect profoundly distinct religious frameworks that have shaped their respective identities over millennia. By exploring shared foundations and key differences between Judaism and Christianity, we uncover the unique theological, ritual, and social elements of each tradition.

This comparative approach, enriched by glimpses into other global religions like Hinduism and Buddhism, highlights the rich diversity and complexity of religious life across cultures.

In 1959, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, a towering figure in the comparative study of religion, reflected on the transformative potential of the comparative approach in understanding religious traditions: 

This vision serves as a powerful reminder that the comparative study of religion holds value far beyond academic circles. By engaging with the differences and shared humanity in traditions such as Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism, we take steps toward a more inclusive and interconnected future.

Jewish Diaspora: Map, Timeline, and Why the Exile Occurred

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The Jewish diaspora is a profound and enduring part of the history of the Jewish people, illustrating a journey marked by suffering, adaptation, and resilience.

In this article, I’ll explore the origins and evolution of the Jewish diaspora, tracing its roots from ancient exiles to modern communities. I’ll also provide a timeline of key events that contributed to this widespread dispersion and discuss why the exiles occurred. With a detailed map and historical analysis, I’ll offer a clear understanding of how the Jewish diaspora unfolded and its enduring impact on Jewish culture and identity.

What Is the Jewish Diaspora?

Diaspora (pronounced die-AS-pora) is a Greek word which simply means “scattering” or “dispersion.” However, in the Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World, Melvin Ember, Carol Ember, and Ian Skoggard note that, for many years, the word has referred specifically to populations spread across territories separate from the places they originated. (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!) In this sense, there are many diasporas in the world, including the Indian diaspora, the Mexican diaspora, and the Chinese diaspora. In this article, though, I’ll focus specifically on the Jewish diaspora.

In his article “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return,” William Safran outlines several rules to differentiate diasporas from migrant communities. The most important of these is that the diaspora population maintains a collective myth of their homeland, which they consider their true home, no matter how long they have been separated from it.

Safran also defined diasporas as people forced into exile by political or economic factors. In other words, the terms “exile” and “diaspora” are synonyms for him. However, I think it makes more sense to think of a diaspora, as a larger category, resulting from one or more forced exiles.

Nevertheless, in Global Diasporas, social scientist Robin Cohen differs slightly from Safran’s opinion, arguing that unlike exiles, members of a diaspora group can also leave their homeland voluntarily and assimilate willingly into a new culture. As we’ll see, both definitions apply to the Jewish diaspora.

By the way, the term diaspora occurs three times in the New Testament. In James 1:1, the author addresses his letter “To the twelve tribes in the diaspora.” 1 Peter 1:1 addresses itself to “To the exiles of the diaspora in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.” This shows that, even in the late 1st century CE, the term was used to refer to Jews outside Palestine. Finally in John 7:35, the Jewish religious leaders wonder where Jesus is going to go: “Does he intend to go to the diaspora among the Greeks and teach the Greeks?”

The term can also be found several times in the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible. It's clear, then, that the notion of the Jewish diaspora occurred very early in Jewish history and thought.

Why Did the Jewish Diaspora Occur and When?

The beginning of the Jewish diaspora can be traced to the 8th century BCE when what we now think of as Israel was actually two kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah in the south. In what came to be known as the Assyrian exile, an Assyrian king named Tiglath-Pileser III began expelling Israelites from the Kingdom of Israel in 733 BCE. Then, in 722 BCE, the Assyrian king Sargon II completely subjugated the Kingdom of Israel and forcibly deported thousands of Israelites, sending them to Mesopotamia. The northern kingdom of Israel would never recover.

Next came the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE. While the kingdom of Judah remained after the northern kingdom of Israel had been destroyed, the Babylonians, under their king Nebuchadnezzar II, conquered Judah in 586, and again in 597 BCE, deporting most of the elites of Judah to Babylonia. In his History of the Jewish People: The Second Temple Era, Hersh Goldwurm writes that after this conquest, the Judahite or Jewish population came to occupy two main geographical locations, Babylonia for those who had been captured, and Israel — now defined as the northern and southern kingdoms — for those left behind.

When the Babylonians were later conquered by the Persians under their king Cyrus the Great, in 539 BCE, any Jews who wanted to return to their homeland and rebuild were allowed to do so. Many of them did, rebuilding Jerusalem and the Temple, but many others remained in Babylonia.

Meanwhile, the Jewish historian Josephus, claimed that Alexander the Great’s successor Ptolemy I conquered Israel in 322 BCE, forcing 120,000 Jewish captives to Egypt. Many other Jews would later move from Judah to Egypt of their own free will. Ptolemy apparently settled the Jews in Egypt to employ them as mercenaries.

So while some Jews had returned to Israel and rebuilt the Temple (hence the name of this era: The Second Temple Period from 516 BCE to 70 CE), many remained in Babylonia and Egypt. For instance, in The Jews under Roman Rule, Mary Smallwood notes that, in the 1st century BCE, the Greek geographer and historian Strabo wrote that Jews were one of the four largest population groups living in the city of Cyrene, in what is now Libya.

When Pompey the Great of Rome conquered Jerusalem in 63 BCE, effectively annexing Israel as part of the Roman Empire, the diaspora expanded due to people escaping from Rome’s draconian military. When Rome laid siege to Jerusalem, finally destroying it in 70 CE, Mary Smallwood writes that Rome sold many Jews into slavery in many different regions. In addition, the upsurge in voluntary Jewish emigration from people escaping the wars caused a drop in Palestine's Jewish population.

In Diaspora: Jews amidst Greeks and Romans, Erich Gruen writes that, not unlike the situation in the Babylonian exile, the destruction of Jerusalem by Rome forced many displaced Jews to frame a new self-definition and adapt to the likelihood of an indeterminate time of exile.

As an example of this adaptation, we have the apostle Paul, a Greek-speaking Jew from Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). Paul lived in the 1st century CE before the destruction of the second Temple, but we can assume that his family had been there for at least a generation by the time he was born.

If you’re interested in the history, legends, and myths of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, you might like Bart Ehrman’s online class “In the Beginning.”  Furthermore, Bart has another online class called “Finding Moses” about the specific history and myth behind this heroic biblical figure.

Well-Known Jewish Diaspora Groups

These trends of conquest, exile, and voluntary emigration would continue throughout the Middle Ages. Some Jewish populations immigrated to what is now Germany and northeastern France. These came to be known as Ashkenazi Jews. They also developed their own distinct language called Yiddish. Unfortunately, because of the regions in Europe where they lived, the vast majority of Jews later killed in the Holocaust were Ashkenazi. Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud were both Ashkenazi Jews.

Sephardic Jews, on the other hand, moved to the Iberian Peninsula, either Spain or Portugal. They were forcibly expelled from Spain by Queen Isabella in 1492 and migrated, some to North Africa, and others to the Netherlands, Britain, France, and Poland. One of the best-known Sephardic Jews was Maimonides, a medieval Jewish philosopher who was very influential as a rabbi and Torah scholar.

Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews were the largest groups of European Jews. However, there were many other Jewish groups in the diaspora, which I’ll look at next.

Source: Map of the Jewish Diaspora of the World by Allice Hunter, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

More Jewish Diaspora Groups

Mizrahi Jews are the descendants of Jewish communities that never left the Middle East, living in countries such as Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Morocco, and Egypt. Jews remaining in those countries still speak Arabic or a Judeo-Arabic dialect. Those who relocated to the modern state of Israel speak modern Hebrew. Well-known Mizrahi Jews include the medieval philosopher and rabbi Saadia Gaon and Nobel Prize-winning author Shlomo Ibn Gabirol.

Beta Israel is an Ethiopian Jewish community that still employs many ancient Jewish practices and traditions. Many of them immigrated to Israel during Operation Moses (1984) and Operation Solomon (1991), two covert Israeli military operations to airlift Ethiopian Jews from Ethiopia and Sudan to Israel. Israeli politicians Shlomo Molla and Avraham Neguise are members of this group.

Bene Israel is a Jewish community in India. They claim their ancestors settled there centuries ago but this is difficult to prove. They are now mostly concentrated around the city of Mumbai. Well known members of Bene Israel include poet Nissim Ezekiel and judge Elijah Moses.

Romaniote Jews are a population of Greek Jews and one of the oldest European Jewish populations. They speak a Greek dialect called Yevanic, which also contains Hebrew. Sadly, most of them were murdered during the Nazi occupation of Greece, and the majority of survivors relocated to Israel. Byzantine poet Eleazar birabbi Qallir and Sabbatai Zevi, who claimed to be the Jewish messiah in the 17th century CE, were both Romaniote Jews.

Karaite Jews came originally from Persia and Iraq but now have communities in Egypt, Crimea, and Israel. They follow a unique form of Judaism that relies solely on the Hebrew Bible, and completely denies the authority of later rabbinic tradition. Caleb Afendopolo, a 15th-century scholar of many subjects, was a Karaite Jew.

Mountain Jews have lived in the Caucasus in countries such as Azerbaijan and Dagestan for centuries, maintaining their own distinct language called Judeo-Tat, a Judeo-Persian dialect. Their ancestors may have originated from ancient Persia in the 5th century BCE. Their religious traditions included a commitment to the Jewish mysticism of the Kabbalah. Israeli singer Omer Adam is descended from Mountain Jews.

Conclusion

The Greek word diaspora originally meant a scattering (of anything). In the case of the Jewish diaspora, this is an apt term. Beginning in the 8th century BCE, Jews in Israel were conquered and deported from their homelands over and over for centuries by foreign empires. While some were captured and forcibly moved during the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, for example, others went elsewhere to escape wars or the possibility of being sold into slavery.

The result of this was that Jews eventually spread all over the world, taking their customs and religion with them, although in different countries, these customs would become regionally modified. Thus, the diaspora caused the spread of Judaism all over the world.

Today, there are Jewish communities in every corner of the globe. While the modern state of Israel was established in 1948, there are still far more Jews living outside that traditional homeland than in it.