The Second Coming of Christ: How the Bible Describes Jesus’ Return

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

What is the Second Coming of Christ? It is the belief that Jesus will one day return to earth — and one of the central tenets of Christian eschatology. For many believers, it represents not only the culmination of God’s plan for humanity but also a moment of ultimate justice and redemption. But how did this belief emerge, and what does the Bible actually say about it? Was the Second Coming of Christ a late addition to Christian doctrine, or was it a foundational part of the faith from the beginning?

In this article, I’ll trace the development of the idea of the Second Coming of Christ through key New Testament texts. Along the way, we’ll explore what early Christians believed about Jesus’ return, how those beliefs were shaped by Jewish apocalyptic traditions, and how different authors depicted what would happen when Jesus came again.

By examining the biblical sources themselves, we can better understand not only the origins of this enduring belief, but why it has remained so powerful throughout Christian history.

What Will Happen When Jesus Returns? Biblical Views

How early did the belief in the Second Coming of Christ become common among early Christians? One way to decide this is to look at biblical texts that clearly refer to it. While there are many verses referring to the return of Jesus, in this article I’ll look at them chronologically, to the extent that it’s possible. We know, for example, that Paul’s letters were written before the Gospels, so let’s start with Paul’s take on the Second Coming.

In the Jewish Annotated New Testament, David Fox Sandmel writes that 1 Thessalonians is the earliest of Paul’s letters. It was written around the year 50 CE, which also makes it the oldest book in the New Testament and, thus, a good place to start.

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It’s clear that this letter is at least partially a response by Paul to questions from members of the church that he started in the city of Thessaloniki. When this letter was written, it had already been about 20 years since Jesus’ death and resurrection. Paul was sure that Jesus would return imminently, reflecting his belief in the general resurrection of the righteous at the end of time which he believed had been initiated by Jesus’ resurrection. However, some members of the Thessalonian church had died in the years since the founding of their church. Would these deceased people be saved when Jesus’ came back?

In 1 Thessalonians 4:13-17, Paul reassures them that these dead members will also be saved:

These verses have long been used to justify belief in the Rapture, in which Jesus returns and all Christians go up with him to heaven, leaving non-Christians behind. However, that may not be what Paul is talking about here.

Bart Ehrman points out that Paul leaves a lot of questions unanswered in this passage. Among them is whether the believers would go up to heaven with Jesus or whether he would come down with them and establish his kingdom on earth. This and other questions are probably not answered because Paul had long been preaching about this to the Thessalonians, and they already knew his answers; there was no need for Paul to reiterate them.

Having said all that, it’s clear that well before 50 CE when 1 Thessalonians was written, Paul had told the churches he’d founded that Jesus would return. However, it’s also interesting to note that Paul says that no one knows when exactly Jesus will return. In 1 Thessalonians 5:2 he says the day will come unexpectedly “like a thief in the night,” and that they should, therefore, remain prepared at all times. Later, I’ll discuss predictions about when Jesus would return.

Next we have the Gospel of Mark, written in 70 CE, or 20 years after 1 Thessalonians. What do Mark’s early Jesus traditions say about the Second Coming of Christ? In Mark 14:61-62, we see Jesus being questioned before the Sanhedrin, the Jewish supreme council:

Jesus’ words in this passage are drawn from two Hebrew Bible passages, Psalms 110:1 and Daniel 7:13, in order to prove that Jesus is the fulfillment of prophecy. Notice that the juxtaposition of these two quotes means both that Jesus will ultimately be seated at God’s right hand and that he will return to earth in a glorious fashion.

Matthew’s Gospel has several quotations about the Second Coming of Christ, but two are especially relevant to our discussion. First, in Matthew 16:27-28, Jesus says

Not only will Jesus return, but some of the people around Jesus will still be alive when he returns. Like Paul, the author of Matthew thought the Second Coming was imminent. However, also like Paul, Jesus says “Keep awake, therefore, for you do not know on what day your Lord is coming.” In other words, he is coming very soon, but you won’t be able to predict when. Implied in this statement is that one shouldn’t try to predict when he is coming.

Skipping forward in time again, we find the book of Hebrews, written sometime between 80-100 CE. Many early Christians originally thought this book was written by Paul, but the vast majority of scholars no longer believe this. For one thing, Paul died about 20 years before this book was written. However, it is clear that this anonymous author would have agreed with Paul about the Second Coming:

While the author of Hebrews certainly believes Christ will appear again, he doesn’t talk about how: there are no clouds of heaven or angels in this passage. That might mean that such a glorious arrival was already assumed and thus went without saying, but we can’t know for sure.

Finally, jumping forward to 96 CE, the book of Revelation was written. Its author, a Jewish Christian named John (sometimes called John of Patmos, referring to the island on which he wrote the book), had a lot to say about Jesus’ Second Coming. In Rev. 1:7, in fact, he refers to the image of Jesus coming on the clouds, just as Paul and the Gospels say:

Even at this early stage of the book, we see an important difference in John’s version of the Second Coming. John’s Jesus indeed comes with the clouds, but he seems to come not only in order to save Christians but also to enact revenge upon their enemies. Notice that “even those who pierced him” — that is, the Romans — will see him and all nations will cry because of his return, presumably because Jesus’ Second Coming signals the beginning of God’s ruthless wrath upon those who have oppressed his people.

John’s Jesus makes this revenge motif clear in Rev. 22:12 when he says “Behold, I am coming soon, bringing my recompense with me, to repay each one for what he has done.” This ruthless, warlike Jesus finds a culmination in Rev. 19:11-16:

Jewish apocalypticism has abundant images of war and violence like this, whether in the Dead Sea Scrolls or the Books of Enoch. But while Christ as judge is common in Second Coming references, this is the most violent depiction of Jesus in the entire NT.

So what can we conclude from these references? First, belief in Jesus’ return probably began fairly soon after his death and resurrection. Most scholars agree that Paul’s conversion experience happened within 4-7 years of Jesus’ death. Since Paul was so adamant that Jesus would return, this puts a very early date on this belief. It is possible that Jesus’ disciples believed it right after his death. Whatever the case, it is clear from the NT references that the belief in Jesus returning was widespread among early Christians.

In addition, many early Christians seem to have believed that Jesus’ Second Coming was a fulfillment of prophecy, that just like the “one like a son of man” in Daniel, Jesus would come on the clouds to rule the world on God’s behalf.

The only place we find a possible difference in opinion is when we look at the bloodthirsty Jesus of Revelation. While Paul and the other NT authors certainly refer to God’s wrath at the end of days, none of them go into as much bloody, militaristic detail as John of Patmos. That is, while most believed Jesus would come back, there might have been some disagreement on what he would do after his return.

When Is Jesus Coming Back?

It’s safe to say that if Paul were alive today, he’d be completely shocked that Jesus has not yet returned. It turns out that he and his whole generation of early Christians were wrong about how soon the Second Coming would happen.

When is Jesus coming back? Although Paul and the Jesus of the Gospels say that human beings cannot know the exact time when Jesus will come back, this hasn’t stopped many, many people from trying to fix a date for that return in advance. Let’s look at some of those.

In 1532, a German monk and mathematician named Michael Stifel published an unusual tome called A Book of Arithmetic about the Antichrist: A Revelation in the Revelation. In this book, Stifel claimed to have applied his mathematical knowledge to the book of Revelation, coming up with a date and time when the world would end and Jesus would come: October 19, 1533. When this forecast proved wrong, Stifel ended his career as a predictor of the Second Coming.

In his book Prophets of Doom, Daniel Cohen writes about Johann Jacob Zimmermann, a German theologian who, in the 17th century, predicted that Jesus would return and the world would end in the year 1694. Conveniently, he died in 1693, never knowing that he had been wrong.

In the Rough Guide to the Millennium, Nick Hanna writes that famed 20th-century psychic Edgar Cayce predicted the end of the world and the return of Christ in the year 2000. Cayce died in 1945, long before his prophecy would fail.

When is Jesus coming back? A number of people in the past predicted that Jesus would return at a date that has yet to happen. For example, mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton used a series of convoluted calculations to conclude that the apocalypse detailed in the book of Revelation, including Jesus’ return, would occur in the year 2060. We will see.

Conclusion

Christians have long believed that Jesus’ time here in the 1st century CE was only the first of his visits. They believe he will return to earth and, although there is some disagreement about what will happen after that, this will, in some sense, end the current world.

Paul is our earliest reference to the Second Coming of Christ. Whatever else he believed, he thought that Jesus’ resurrection was only the beginning of a general resurrection predicted by prophecy and believed in by many pious Jews of his time, including the Pharisees. It seems clear from Paul’s references, and the fact that he converted so soon after Jesus’ death, that this belief in Jesus’ Second Coming began very early in the movement.

The Gospels mostly follow suit, saying that Jesus will return as judge of the living and the dead, subsequently ruling the world on God’s behalf. The book of Hebrews also espouses this belief, although its author is a bit more vague in describing the actual events coinciding with Jesus’ return. Then there’s the book of Revelation.

In Revelation, Jesus indeed comes back — with a vengeance! He is riding a war horse, has a vicious, double-edged sword, and a garment dipped in blood. He is furious and John says that he slaughters the enemies of God, including the Romans who crucified Jesus and any other nations who have oppressed God’s people.

Since humans are never good at dealing with uncertainty, many throughout history have tried in vain to predict when Jesus would return. They did this in spite of the fact that both Paul and the Jesus of the Gospels say that only God can know.

Despite all these failed predictions, perhaps at heart the idea of Jesus’ return is a message of hope: Things may look bad now, but they’re going to get better.

Parousia: Meaning and Where It Is in the Bible

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

The word parousia is deeply embedded in Christian theology, but its meaning and usage have evolved over time. This transformation of this word from a general concept to a defining feature of Christian eschatology marks a significant development in Christian thought.

In this article, I’ll explain the etymology of the word parousia, its appearances in the Bible, and the way it has shaped Christian views on the end times. I’ll also look at the predictions surrounding this event and how these beliefs continue to influence Christian thought and the wider culture today.

Parousia’s Meaning and Scriptural References

Parousia is a Greek word made up of two elements: para is a Greek prefix meaning “beside or near” and ousia means “being or essence.” The combination of these two results in parousia, the most literal meaning of which is “presence,” although it was also used to mean “arrival.” This second meaning evolved in early Christianity to refer to the Second Coming of Jesus.

The word is not found in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. However, it occurs 24 times in the New Testament, although not all of these refer to Jesus.

For example, parousia is sometimes used merely to contrast a person’s presence to their absence. Paul uses it this way in Philippians 2:12 when he writes

Other verses use the word in the mundane sense of “arrival”, such as this brief reference in 1 Corinthians 16:17 where Paul writes “I rejoice at the coming (parousia) of Stephanas and Fortunatus and Achaicus” (see also 2 Cor 7:6, 7; 10:10; Phil 1:26; 2:12). Again, the use of the word exclusively for the Second Coming, that is, THE Parousia, had not yet happened in Paul’s time.

Nevertheless, the other 18 instances of parousia in the New Testament all have eschatological associations. Eschatology, by the way, is theology about the end of the world. One interesting example found in 2 Thessalonians 2:9 actually uses it for the arrival of the “man of lawlessness,” often identified as the Antichrist: “The coming (parousia) of the lawless one is apparent in the working of Satan, who uses all power, signs, lying wonders…”.

All the rest of the NT occurrences of parousia refer to Christ. In Matthew 24:3, for instance, Jesus’ disciples ask him “Tell us, when will this be, and what will be the sign of your coming (parousias) and of the end of the age?” Further on in Matthew 24:27, Jesus says “For as the lightning comes from the east and flashes as far as the west, so will be the coming (parousia) of the Son of Man.” Likewise, James 5:7 says “Be patient, therefore, brothers and sisters, until the coming (parousias) of the Lord.”

Interestingly, none of the references in the NT call Jesus’ Parousia the “Second Coming.” Our first Christian reference to this phrase comes from the 2nd century in a text called “Dialogue with Trypho” by Justin Martyr:

There are also several NT terms related to parousia. One is the Greek word apokalypsis meaning “uncovering” or “revealing.” In 1 Corinthians 1:7, Paul writes that Christians “wait for the revealing (apokalypsin) of our Lord Jesus Christ.” This word is also the traditional title of the book of Revelation in Greek, derived from the first phrase of the book, “The revelation (apokalypsis) of Jesus Christ.”

Another related term in the NT is epiphaneia, meaning “appearance” or “manifestation.” In 1 Timothy 6:14, the author, likely someone writing in Paul’s name, writes that his addressee should “keep the commandment without spot or blame until the manifestation (epiphaneias) of our Lord Jesus Christ.” This term was often used in ancient Greek to signify the visible manifestation of a god, so the connotation here is both that Jesus will appear and that he is divine.

Finally, there is the term phanerō which, when used as a passive verb, means “to be revealed or manifested.” We see this term used in Colossians 3:4 when the author writes that “when Christ who is your life is revealed (phanerōthē), then you also will be revealed with him in glory.”

Failed Predictions of the Parousia

The earliest Christians believed that the Parousia was imminent. In our earliest Christian document, 1 Thessalonians, Paul addresses a community of former pagans whom he’s converted. It’s clear from the letter that they are anxious. Though Paul has told them that Jesus could return any minute now, they are still waiting (1 Thessalonians was written around 50 CE, only 20 years after Jesus’ death). The Thessalonians are, thus, afraid that the members of their community who have died will miss out on the Parousia and its resulting salvation. Paul assures them this is not the case.

Furthermore, Rizwan Ahmed notes that Jesus’ own preaching in the Synoptic Gospels is clearly apocalyptic. In several verses, he says that the end of the world, and, thus, his Second Coming, will happen before his generation passes. In Mark 1:9, for example, he says “Truly I tell you, there are some standing here who will not taste death until they see that the kingdom of God has come with power.” Similarly, in Mark 14:62, when the high priest asks if he is the Son of God, Jesus says “I am; and you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of the Power and coming with the clouds of heaven.” While we can’t know for certain if Jesus said this, we can certainly say that the authors of the Synoptic Gospels believed it.

That didn’t happen in Jesus’ generation, of course, but Christians generally maintained faith in the Parousia. When the emperor Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea in the 4th century, a creed was formed which said in part that Jesus “ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in his glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.” Note that while it says Jesus will return, no time is mentioned.

By the way, it isn’t only Christians who await Jesus’ return. Muslims also believe Jesus will come back, although they differ on the significance of it. For them, Jesus was a prophet to be honored, like Moses and Muhammed, but not divine. A verse in the Quran says that Jesus was not actually killed on the cross but instead “Allah raised him to Himself,” not unlike the biblical Enoch and Elijah. In a hadith, a saying of the prophet Muhammed outside the Quran, Muhammed says of the Judgment Day that “The Hour will not be established until the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you as a just ruler.”

In the centuries since then, there have been many failed predictions of Jesus’ Parousia. I’ll highlight just a few here.

In the 3rd century, a Christian author named Hippolytus of Rome (170-235 CE) predicted that the Parousia would occur in the year 500 CE. Based on his reading of the book of Daniel, he said that 6,000 years since the creation of the world had to pass before Jesus would return. Since he believed that creation happened 5,500 years before Christ, Christ would return in the year 500.

In The Last Days Are Here Again: A History of the End Times, Richard Kyle writes that in the Middle Ages, an Italian monk and theologian named Joachim of Fiore (1135- 1202) said Jesus would return and reign for 1,000 years — an idea known as millennialism — beginning in the year 1260.

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In Apocalypses: Prophecies Cults and Millennia, Eugen Weber writes that Italian Renaissance painter Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) believed, based on contemporary interpretations of the book of Revelation, that he was living in the time of the Great Tribulation, a period of intense worldwide suffering that was to come before the end of the world. Since it was the middle of the year 1500, Botticelli predicted that Christ’s millennial reign would begin three and a half years later, in 1504.

In Millennium Prophecies, Stephen Skinner writes of self-proclaimed British prophet Joanna Southcott (1750-1814) who, at the age of 64, claimed to be pregnant with the Christ child, a very different interpretation of the Parousia. She also claimed he would be born on Christmas Day, 1814. However, Southcott actually passed away on that day. An autopsy then proved that she was not pregnant.

Finally, in her own 1973 book The Call to Glory, astrologer and alleged psychic Jeanne Dixon claimed that the battle of Armageddon mentioned in Revelation 16 would occur in 2020, after which Jesus would return to defeat the Antichrist, Satan and the False Prophet between 2020 and 2037.

This is only four of the many, many failed predictions of the Parousia. Self-proclaimed prophets are no doubt continuing to make them now.

Impact the Parousia on the World Today

Belief in the Second Coming is a tenet of most denominations of Christianity, even today. However, there is clearly a diversity of opinion on this topic, even within denominations that technically believe it.

For example, in a 2010 survey by the Pew Research Center, about 40% of Americans claimed to believe that Jesus will return by the year 2050. Breaking these results down, 58% of white evangelical Christians believed this, as well as 32% of Catholics and 27% of white mainline Protestants. Those percentages are relatively small and may simply indicate that the rest of those communities believe the Parousia will come later than 2050.

One dissenting Christian opinion comes from the Center for Progressive Christianity, where an author named Peter E. Lewis writes “The Second Coming of Christ is an erroneous idea that developed among Christians in the last third of the first century AD.” He goes on to write that

There have also been numerous books and/or films about the Second Coming. The best-known is the Left Behind series of novels and films by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, released between 1995 and 2007. They, in turn, were inspired by Hal Lindsey and Carol Carlson’s 1970 bestselling book The Late Great Planet Earth. Among other specifics, Lindsey and Carlson claimed that the Second Coming would happen no later than 1988.

Beyond just affecting the culture, however, in a recent study by Simon Dein, we saw the impact the COVID-19 pandemic had on some Christians:

In another study on this topic, during the COVID-19 pandemic, white Evangelical Christians were found to represent almost a third of unvaccinated adults in the U.S. Specifically, the study found that “common reasons for vaccine hesitancy specifically relevant among Evangelical Christians are that vaccines interfere with divine providence.”

Additionally, in a 2003 opinion piece in the Los Angeles Times, Bart Ehrman wrote about how belief in the imminent Parousia as interpreted from the book of Revelation was affecting people’s opinions on climate change.

He notes that although “biblical scholars have long recognized that the book was written for a 1st-century audience with 1st-century concerns about the 1st-century Roman Empire,” many Christians continue to believe it was written about the 21st century. This may have a disastrous effect on efforts to stem climate change because, as Ehrman writes,

Conclusion

Parousia is a Greek word which literally means “presence” or “arrival.” Over time, the word came to indicate the belief that Jesus would return, ushering in the end of the corrupt world and the beginning of the Last Judgment.

The word occurs 24 times in the New Testament, six of which carry the ordinary meaning of the arrival of a person. However, the other 18 occurrences all pertain in some way to eschatology, the theology about the end of the world. Other Greek words for this idea in the New Testament include apokalypsis, or “revealing” and epiphaneia or “manifestation.”

It’s clear that Paul and many of the earliest Christians believed that Jesus would return in their lifetimes. In fact, it’s likely that Jesus believed this as well. When this didn’t happen, scores of future Christians strained to predict the day of the Parousia. So far, none of these have come true, but in 1946, New Age guru Alice Bailey of the Theosophical Society predicted that Jesus would return in 2025. We shall see.

Finally, belief in the Second Coming has had some real-world effects in our own time. Many who believe the Second Coming is imminent feel that action on climate change is useless since the world will soon end. In addition, a large number of these same believers accepted the COVID-19 pandemic as a sign of the impending end of the world, and therefore, refused to be vaccinated. These examples show that religious ideas, right or wrong, can have real consequences.

Eschatology: Exploring Its Meaning & Conflicting Views (With Detailed Chart)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Nearly 2,000 years ago, the Roman philosopher Seneca observed, “Nothing will abide where it is now placed. . . . Time will lay all things low and take all things with it. . . [It] will level whole mountains, and in another place will pile up rocks on high; it will drink up seas, turn rivers from their courses.” 

Seneca’s eschatological reflection on the relentless passage of time captures a theme that has preoccupied human thought across cultures and ages: the inevitable transformation — and perhaps ultimate end — of the world as we know it.

Similarly, ancient Taoist writings foretold of a catastrophic deluge that would bring forth devastating epidemics, darkness, and earthquakes, culminating in the complete incineration of the earth, mountains included. Such eschatological visions, though differing in detail, share a common thread: a profound concern with the final destiny of humanity and the cosmos.

Across the spectrum of religious beliefs, from early civilizations to modern theological debates, the concept of eschatology — the study of the end times — has persisted as a powerful force, shaping not only spiritual doctrine but also human understanding of existence itself.

In this article, we’ll delve into the rich and varied landscape of Christian eschatology, examining its origins, development, and the conflicting interpretations that have emerged over centuries. 

We’ll also explore how eschatological thought has evolved within Christianity, particularly through the contributions of theologians such as R.C. Sproul, John MacArthur, and John Piper.

Finally, we will present a detailed chart comparing key eschatological views, offering a clear guide to understanding the diverse ways in which believers envision the end of the world and the dawn of what might come after.

Eschatology: Etymology and Definition

Eschatology, pronounced “es-kuh-TOL-uh-jee,” is a term that stems from the Greek word eschatos, meaning “last” or “end”, combined with logia, meaning “study of” or “doctrine.” As a branch of theology, eschatology is concerned with the study of the ultimate destiny of humanity and the world, often referred to as the “end times.”

Referring to the Christian tradition, David Ferguson, in The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine, explains: 

“Eschatology has traditionally been understood as the doctrine of the last things. In manuals of doctrine, the four last things were often identified as resurrection, judgment, heaven, and hell. The task of eschatology was to elucidate these on the basis of information contained in scripture and tradition.”

Thus, the eschatology meaning is deeply rooted in the theological attempt to understand and articulate the ultimate events that are believed to conclude the present world order. Traditionally, these events have been framed as the final components of Christian doctrine. (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!)

In other words, eschatology is often seen as the final piece in the intricate puzzle of Christian belief, offering clarity and resolution to the grand narrative of creation, fall, and redemption. The eschatological perspective, therefore, isn’t merely an isolated doctrine, but a lens through which the entirety of theological understanding can be viewed.

History of Eschatology

Eschatology might sound like a term best reserved for dusty theological tomes, but its history is anything but boring. 

From apocalyptic prophets to centuries of scholarly debate, the journey of eschatology through the ages is a fascinating tale of how humanity has tried to predict the ultimate “spoiler alert” — the end of the world. 

So, in this section, we'll briefly delve into the origins of Christian eschatological beliefs and the eventual emergence of eschatology as a distinctive field within theology.

The Emergence of the Christian Eschatological Beliefs

Christianity emerged in its earliest form as a fervent eschatological movement deeply rooted in the apocalyptic expectations of the time. At the center of it was the historical Jesus, who many scholars considered to be an apocalyptic prophet. 

Jesus’ public ministry was intensely focused on the imminent end of the present world and the dawning of the Kingdom of God. 

His teachings echoed the core tenets of Jewish apocalyptic eschatology, which held that God would soon fulfill his promises to Israel. According to this belief, foreign rulers who oppressed God’s people would be overthrown, justice would prevail, and a divinely appointed king would reign over a restored Israel.

Furthermore, the early Christian community, formed in the aftermath of Jesus’ death and alleged resurrection, continued this eschatological emphasis. The writings of the Apostle Paul, particularly in his earliest epistles, reveal that the first Christians lived in the fervent expectation of Jesus’ imminent return and the establishment of God’s Kingdom (e.g. 1 Thess 4:13-18).

In other words, this belief in the imminent Parousia (Jesus’ second coming) and the subsequent establishment of God’s Kingdom on earth was a defining characteristic of the early Church. As historian E.P. Sanders aptly observes: “The most certain fact of all is that early Christianity was an eschatological movement.”

However, as the decades passed and the expected return of Jesus didn’t materialize, the early Christians faced a profound challenge. The delay in the Parousia led to what scholars such as John Gager (Kingdom and Community) described as cognitive dissonance — a tension between their expectations and the unfolding reality.

To reconcile this, early Christians began to reinterpret Jesus’ teachings, gradually shifting from a strictly apocalyptic framework to a more nuanced understanding of his message. As Bart D. Ehrman notes in Jesus: The Apocalyptic Prophet of a New Millennium, this process of reinterpretation effectively "de-apocalypticized" Jesus.

This shift not only allowed the Christian faith to adapt to its growing temporal extension but also laid the groundwork for the development of eschatology as a distinct theological discipline. Over time, what began as an urgent expectation of the end evolved into a complex field of study within Christian theology.

As we continue, we’ll turn our focus to some of the pivotal figures who have shaped this branch of theology, thus exploring how their contributions have influenced the development and understanding of eschatology in the modern Christian tradition.

The Rise of Eschatology as a Scholarly Field

The term “eschatology,” as Markus Mühling notes, comes from Protestant Orthodoxy — Lutheran Orthodoxy in particular. Protestant Orthodoxy describes a theological strand in the late sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, characterized by its thorough, comprehensive, and scientific approach to theology. 

As a term, “eschatology” finally became established in scholarship after the decline of Protestant Orthodoxy — once German had become the standard academic language for theology and the Enlightenment emerged. 

Due to the limited scope of this article, we can’t deal in depth with the broader historical development of eschatology as a field of study. Instead, we’ll focus first on the eschatological views of Martin Luther and John Calvin. We’ll then turn to some contemporary theologians and their respective eschatological approaches.

Martin Luther’s eschatological outlook was deeply intertwined with his theological convictions, particularly his understanding of salvation and the role of faith. Luther believed that the world was on the brink of a dramatic and divine intervention, a conviction strongly influenced by his interpretation of the turbulent events of his time.

For Luther, the corruption within the Catholic Church and the clarity of the gospel message, now restored through the Reformation, were indicators that the world was nearing its final days.

Moreover, Luther’s eschatology was marked by a profound sense of urgency. He didn’t attempt to pinpoint the exact timing of the end, but he was convinced that the final chapter of human history was being written in his own time.

As Jane E. Strohl in The Oxford Handbook of Martin Luther’s Theology, eloquently summarizes: 

“The eschatological force of Luther’s theology is clear. Although he abided by the Lord’s caution that the exact time of the end was known only to the Father, Luther was confident that the world was writing the last chapter of its history. It was a moment of ultimate decision for individuals, communities, and kingdoms.”

This belief in the imminent end of the world gave Luther’s message a sense of immediacy that was both compelling and, at times, harsh. He saw the unfolding of history as a moment of critical decision-making, where individuals and entire societies faced a stark choice: embrace the restored gospel of grace or face eternal consequences. 

While sharing some of Luther’s eschatological concerns, John Calvin approached the subject with a more measured tone (Fun fact: Revelation was the only book of the New Testament on which he didn't write a commentary). Calvin’s eschatology was firmly rooted in his doctrine of God’s sovereignty and providence, which shaped his understanding of the end times. 

Unlike Luther, who saw the Reformation as a sign of the imminent end, Calvin emphasized the mystery of God’s timing and cautioned against speculative predictions about the return of Christ.

For Calvin, eschatology wasn’t about predicting specific events or timelines but affirming the ultimate victory of God’s kingdom. He taught that believers should live in a state of readiness, always prepared for Christ’s return, but not succumbing to fear or speculation.

Christian Eschatology: Modern Contributions

Given the prominence of the “last days” and the anticipated return of Jesus throughout Christian history, it’s no surprise that eschatology has been seen as a crucial component of Christian theology by many influential figures. 

Calvinist theologian Karl Barth, in his commentary on Romans, employed strikingly forceful language when he declared, “Christianity that is not totally and utterly eschatological has nothing whatever to do with Christ.” This sentiment is echoed by Joseph Ratzinger, who observed that “eschatology has moved into the very center of the theological stage.”

In this section, therefore, we’ll explore how several contemporary Protestant theologians have engaged with the concept of eschatology, beginning with Robert C. Sproul.

Sproul’s eschatological views are most notably articulated in his influential book The Last Days According to Jesus. In this work, Sproul grapples with the question of how to understand the eschatological predictions found in the New Testament, especially because first Christians (as much as we can deduce from the sources) expected Jesus to return within their lifetimes.

Sproul was particularly interested in the concept of “preterism,” which is the belief that many of the eschatological prophecies in the Bible, particularly those in the Book of Revelation, were fulfilled in the first century with the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. 

Moreover, Sproul also sought a balance between literalism and symbolic interpretation. He acknowledged that certain eschatological passages in the Bible are highly symbolic, particularly those found in apocalyptic literature like Revelation. 

Additionally, Sproul was known for his defense of the Reformed eschatological view, particularly amillennialism, which interprets the millennium mentioned in Revelation 20 symbolically rather than literally.

Furthermore, he argued that understanding when to apply literal versus symbolic interpretation is essential for a proper grasp of eschatology. His nuanced approach allowed him to address the challenges posed by both strict literalism, which can lead to speculative predictions, and overly symbolic interpretations, which might obscure the prophetic significance of Scripture.

As he puts it in simple terms while referring to the so-called Olivet discourse (e.g. Mk 13; Mt 24-25, and Lk 21): “Something in this text has to be interpreted figuratively and something has to be interpreted literally, or there is no way to salvage this text from the guns of higher criticism.” This is a particularly interesting notion to which I’ll return briefly in the conclusion of this article. 

John MacArthur is well-known for his strong advocacy of premillennial eschatology, particularly in the context of dispensationalism. 

Unlike the more nuanced approaches of some of his contemporaries, MacArthur's eschatological stance is characterized by a clear and unwavering commitment to a literal interpretation of Scripture, especially regarding prophetic passages.

He believes that the Bible, when properly understood, provides a detailed and specific account of the end times, including the events leading up to Jesus’ second coming, the millennium, and the final judgment.

Central to MacArthur’s eschatology is the belief in Jesus’ literal thousand-year reign on earth, a doctrine known as futuristic premillennialism. According to this view, Jesus will return to establish his kingdom on earth before the millennium — a period during which he will reign in peace and righteousness.

In their book Biblical Doctrine, John MacArthur and Richard Mayhue explain: 

“Futuristic premillennialism is based on three main beliefs... As a result, futuristic premillennialism expects a literal fulfillment of all physical, national, land, and spiritual blessings in the Bible, including those to Israel and the nations... Second, futuristic premillennialism maintains the biblical distinction between Israel and the church and understands that the Bible does not confuse the two... Third, futuristic premillennialism recognizes that Scripture presents a coming fulfillment of Daniel’s seventieth week which is seven years of tribulation, and that comes before Jesus’s earthly millennial kingdom.”

In other words, MacArthur teaches that this period will be preceded by a series of prophetic events, including the rapture of the church, the tribulation, and the ultimate defeat of Satan. 

So, his approach is rooted in a literalist hermeneutic, which insists on the straightforward interpretation of biblical prophecy. MacArthur argues that symbolic or allegorical interpretations often lead to confusion and undermine the authority of Scripture. 

The last theologian we'll consider in this exploration of contemporary eschatological thought is John Piper — a well-respected Reformed pastor and theologian known for his emphasis on the sovereignty of God and the centrality of Christ in all things.

Piper’s eschatology, while rooted in a Reformed theological framework, is often characterized by a blend of both amillennial and premillennial perspectives. 

While Piper acknowledges the symbolic nature of certain eschatological passages, he tends to lean towards a historic premillennial view, which holds that Christ will return before a literal millennium — a period of Christ’s reign on earth — after a time of tribulation.

Furthermore, Piper emphasizes that eschatology should ultimately direct believers’ focus toward the glory of God and the supremacy of Christ in all things. He often speaks of the end times not as a source of speculative prediction but as a powerful motivator for Christian living and mission. 

For Piper, the certainty of Christ’s return and the final judgment serves as a profound encouragement/motivation for believers to persevere in faith and religious zeal — a cause that, according to some scholars such as Bart D. Ehrman, could have been an important reason for the emergence of early Christian missionary impulses!

Having explored how these influential theologians approach eschatology, we’ll now turn our attention to a comparative chart that outlines the prominent eschatological perspectives within Christian theology.

Eschatology Views Comparison Chart

This chart highlights the diversity of eschatological perspectives within Christian theology and illustrates how different interpretations of Scripture lead to varying understandings of the end times.

Conclusion

In examining the varied landscape of eschatological thought within Christian theology, we have seen how different interpretative approaches — whether literal, symbolic, or a blend of both — shape our understanding of the end times.

Sproul's insistence on balancing figurative and literal interpretation highlights a critical challenge theologians face: how to faithfully engage with Scripture in a way that withstands the scrutiny of modern historical criticism. 

Moreover, Sproul's call to safeguard the integrity of Scripture from the “guns of higher criticism” reminded me of a brilliant distinction that Paula Fredriksen once made between two important but fundamentally different fields of inquiry: theology and history.

Theology, as she notes, is primarily textual and trans-temporal, concerned with interpreting sacred texts and their meanings across time — constantly finding answers for contemporary issues. 

History, on the other hand, is contextual and temporal, focused on reconstructing the past through the lens of cultural, social, and material conditions of the era. For historians, primary sources like inscriptions, archaeological findings, and historical documents guide the critical reconstruction of figures such as Jesus of Nazareth. 

From this perspective, Jesus is understood as a man embedded within a specific historical context, whose concerns and worldview might not align with our own. In contrast, theology finds in Jesus the eternal Son of God, whose significance transcends any specific time or place.

This methodological chasm between history and theology is, in my view, unbridgeable, yet it is precisely within this space that the study of eschatology becomes so vital and complex. Ultimately, eschatology, as both a theological and historical endeavor, invites us to navigate this intricate balance between text and context, between the eternal and the temporal.

If you’re interested in diving deeper into the complexities of eschatology and the historical context of biblical prophecy, consider enrolling in Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course, “Will You Be Left Behind? A History of The Rapture.”

In this course, Dr. Ehrman offers a scholarly analysis of the Book of Revelation, emphasizing the significance of its historical context and addressing crucial questions like, “Does the Book of Revelation predict our future? Is it meant to?” This course is an excellent opportunity to further explore the fascinating interplay between history, theology, and eschatological expectation! 

666: The Actual Number of the Beast?

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

A couple of months ago, I participated in a pub quiz. These events are actually quite popular in Croatia! They are both fun and educational, filled with lots of interesting questions and puzzles. That particular time, one question stood out. We were presented with a white horse, green horse, red horse, black horse and a pale horse.

One of those doesn't belong there. We had to figure out which one and why. No additional context was provided! Nevertheless, my mind immediately recognized the crucial background: The puzzle was referring to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse mentioned in Revelation 6.

The Book of Revelation, one of the most fascinating texts of the New Testament, is particularly known for its vivid imagery and symbolic numbers. Among these, the so-called number of the beast, 666, stands out as one of the most intriguing and mysterious elements. 

This number has captured the imagination of people for centuries, inspiring countless interpretations and speculations.

In this article, we’ll delve into the historical and textual background of 666. We want to unravel its origins, understand its meaning, and explore the discrepancies found in early texts — specifically the variation between 616 and 666. 

By examining these aspects, we hope to shed light on the true significance of the number of the beast and its place in Biblical scholarship.

Whether you're a Biblical scholar or simply curious about this iconic number, this journey promises to be both enlightening and engaging. And no, I won't spoil the answer to the pub quiz question mentioned above — some mysteries are best left for you to ponder.  

Before we begin our journey, I must tell you about an amazing opportunity! Join Dr. Bart D. Ehrman in his webinar “Will You Be Left Behind? A History of The Rapture”, where he delves into the meaning of the Book of Revelation from a historical perspective.

Discover whether Revelation predicts our future and unravels the mysteries behind concepts like the Rapture and the Antichrist. Don't miss this insightful exploration into one of the most intriguing books of the Bible. Register now!

Letters and Numbers in the Ancient World: Understanding the Context

To delve deeper into the historical origin and meaning of 666, it's essential to first understand the numerical systems used in ancient times. Unlike our modern system, which separates alphabetical and numerical symbols, ancient languages like Hebrew and Greek used their letters as numerals. 

As Bart D. Ehrman explains in his excellent book Armageddon: “Neither Hebrew nor Greek used different alphabetical and numerical systems the way we do when we use the Latin alphabet (a, b, c) but Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3). In these ancient languages, the letters of the alphabet served also as numerals.” (Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!)

This dual role of letters gave rise to a fascinating interpretive practice known as gematria. In Jewish tradition, and therefore, in the Old Testament as well, each letter of the alphabet had a numerical value. 

This meant words and names could be translated into numbers, and conversely, numbers could be interpreted as words. For example, in Hebrew, the letter aleph (א) is 1, bet (ב) is 2, and so on. This practice allowed for a range of symbolic interpretations and was often used to uncover hidden meanings within texts.

Consequently, gematria played a significant role in biblical exegesis and interpretation. In the context of the number 666, gematria offers a compelling explanation. The number 666 can be understood as a coded reference, where the numerical value points to a specific name or word.

By understanding gematria, we gain insight into how ancient readers might have deciphered the number 666, seeing it not just as a random figure but as a meaningful symbol within their religious and cultural framework. 

The Book of Revelation and the Number of the Beast

The Book of Revelation is probably the most fascinating piece of literature in the New Testament. The author calls himself John, and there is no compelling reason to doubt it was his real name. However, the author doesn’t claim to be the Apostle John. He says he experienced his revelation while he “was on the island called Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.”

Furthermore, Revelation is a type of work known as the Apocalypse. As such, it most closely resembles the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament. As with Daniel and other apocalyptic works, the visions John receives are highly symbolic. Therefore, of course, there have been all sorts of interpretations, especially about the number of the beast.

Writing at the end of the 20th century, Adela Y. Collins noted: “The puzzle of 666 continues to fascinate and inspire ingenious solutions. Sometimes this mysterious number is interpreted as a reference to a personal Antichrist or False Messiah. Mussolini, Hitler, Henry Kissinger, and Anwar Sadat have been so identified in this century.”

Numbers, therefore, play an important role in Revelation. Plagues, trumpets, seals, and other elements often come in specific numbers — most notably seven, implying completion or wholeness.

The precise numbering of the objects and the use of meaningful numbers such as seven indicate that Revelation’s events may seem chaotic and strange, but God has planned an order behind everything that happens.

In this context, the number 666 appears as a significant and mysterious symbol. It’s in Revelation 13:18, a passage that has intrigued and puzzled readers for centuries.

The verse states: “This calls for wisdom: let the one who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man, and his number is 666.” This passage is part of a larger vision involving two beasts, one from the sea and one from the earth, which play central roles in the apocalyptic narrative.

The number 666 is described as the number of the beast, a figure representing evil and opposition to God. This beast exerts considerable influence and power, leading many to worship it. The directive to “calculate the number” indicates that 666 is not a random number but one that carries a specific meaning, possibly pointing to a particular individual or concept. 

Who is Behind the Number of the Beast?: Interpreting the Meaning of 666 

Understanding the Book of Revelation requires situating it within its historical and social context. Many people naturally assume this book predicts events yet to come in our future. This has been a common interpretation through the ages, with each generation believing that Revelation foretells imminent events in their time.

However, every generation has been wrong so far, even though each new one thinks it will surely be the one to witness these prophecies. Luckily, an alternative approach exists: Understanding the book in its historical and social context. 

In The New Testament: A Historical Introduction, Bart Ehrman notes: "A historian who wants to understand this one ancient text, then, will situate it in the context of this related literature and explain its important features in light of the literary conventions of the genre." When we do this, we can uncover the mysterious person behind the number 666.

First and foremost, Revelation presents a dualistic worldview, a common feature in the apocalyptic literature of the ancient world. In this view, there are two kinds of people: true Christians and everyone else. These groups worship one of two beings: God or the demonic beast.

At the end of chapter 12 and the beginning of chapter 13, a dragon representing Satan introduces the beast symbolizing Rome and its emperor. This depiction of the beast draws on the seventh chapter of Daniel, and the four beasts that appear in it.

Furthermore, the angel tells John that 666 is the number “of a man.” This means we should be looking at a specific individual. Considering that John is especially incensed that the beast is persecuting Christians, the person we are looking for must be a Roman Emperor. But which one? 

In Armageddon, Bart D. Ehrman explains: "The first Roman emperor to do so [persecution of Christians] was Nero, who ruled from 54 to 68 CE. And this is where the gematria kicks in: if you spell “Caesar Nero” in Hebrew letters, the name adds up to 666... But why would the author be referring to the name as spelled in Hebrew rather than Greek? Numerological puzzles are inherently intriguing, and perhaps John is simply heightening the mystery.”

Elaine Pagels, in her book Revelations: Visions, Prophecy, and Politics in the Book of Revelation, supports this view: "Although John held all emperors in contempt, he chose Nero — who was said to have burned Jewish followers of Jesus alive to illuminate his garden — to epitomize “the beast” that was Roman rule... Some still debate its meaning, but many now agree that the most obvious calculations suggest that the ‘number of the beast’ spells out Nero’s imperial name."

But it wasn't only Nero's alleged cruelty and persecution of Christians that prompted John to associate him with the number of the beast.

In Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse, Adele Y. Collins explains: “Shortly after Nero committed suicide in 68, the rumor began to spread that he had not really died but had escaped to the East. The common people in Rome and many in the East whom he had benefited hoped that he would return with the Parthians (successors of the Persians) as his allies and regain power in Rome.”

John adapted this legend, choosing to depict Nero as the mysterious person behind the number 666. Understanding this historical context is crucial. Nero was infamous for his brutal persecution of Christians, making him a fitting candidate for the beast in the eyes of early Christians.

By using gematria, John encoded a message that his contemporaries would understand while also protecting the early Christian community from direct Roman retribution. 

Thus, interpreting the number 666 within its historical context allows us to see Revelation not as a cryptic prediction of our future but as an apocalyptic reaction to the struggles of early Christians who were still at the end of the 1st century looking ahead, hoping Jesus would soon return and establish the Kingdom of God on Earth.

But what if 666 isn’t even the correct number? An interesting variation in our manuscripts reveals an even more intriguing  aspect of the early Christian scribal culture. Let’s take a look!  

666 or 616? The True Number of the Beast

The first thing to note is that we don’t possess any of the original books of the Bible. Instead, we have manuscript copies. Through a meticulous study known as textual criticism, scholars strive to reconstruct the original meaning as accurately as possible. 

Textual criticism involves comparing these various manuscripts to identify and correct errors that may have been introduced over centuries of copying. One significant discrepancy that arises from this process concerns the true number of the beast.

While most manuscripts cite the infamous number 666, some of our best and earliest manuscripts present a different number: 616. This variation is in several important early manuscripts, including “Papyrus 115” from the late 3rd century C.E. This is the oldest surviving manuscript containing Revelation 13. 

Furthermore, Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (one of the great uncial codices) from the 5th century C.E. also has the number 616, not 666. But this variation must be older than the end of the 3rd century. We know that because the bishop Irenaeus mentions 616 around 180 C.E. but notes that those who personally knew John, the author of Revelation, confirm the true number is 666. 

So, which is it? We can’t be sure. However, this discrepancy raises another important question: Does the number 616 alter our understanding of the beast's identity, particularly our interpretation of Nero as the figure behind this symbolic number?

Not so fast! It only points to an alternative spelling of Nero's name. This alternative also uses a symbolic and numerical method to reference Nero.

According to Bart D. Ehrman: “As it turns out, there are two ways to spell 'Caesar Nero' in Hebrew, one with and one without an 'n' at the end of his name (Neron or Nero). In Hebrew, an 'n' is the letter 'nun'. When used as a numeral, 'nun' represents 50. There it is: spelled with the nun, Nero’s name adds up to 666; without the 'nun' it is 616. John is definitely talking about Nero.”

Conclusion

In exploring the enigmatic number 666, we have delved into the historical contexts of the Book of Revelation. Through an understanding of ancient numerical systems and the practice of gematria, it becomes evident that the number 666 is a symbolic reference, pointing to Emperor Nero.

Moreover, the manuscript discrepancy revealing the number 616 instead of 666 doesn’t fundamentally alter this interpretation. Rather, it even reinforces it! This nuanced understanding underscores the importance of textual criticism and historical analysis in Biblical scholarship and highlights how original context can illuminate the meanings behind apocalyptic texts.

So, next time you encounter the number 666, remember its rich historical background and the scholarly efforts that have gone into deciphering its mystery. And for those who know the answer to the pub quiz question without the help of Google, I owe you a beer!

Apocalyptic Literature in the New Testament: Insights into End Times and Eschatology

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Is the end of the world upon us? Recent polls suggest that 39% of adult Americans believe they are living in the end times. It's a staggering statistic that raises questions about the origins of these beliefs and what they mean for our understanding of the future.

These apocalyptic sentiments, shared by a significant portion of the population, are not new. They can be traced back to Jewish apocalyptic literature that emerged in the 2nd century B.C.E. This ancient worldview has had a profound and lasting impact on religious and cultural thought, especially in the context of the New Testament.

But why has this ancient belief persisted and resurfaced so strongly in modern times? What is its presence in the New Testament? This article will delve into the origins of apocalyptic views and their manifestation in foundational Christian texts.

Apocalyptic Literature: Unpacking the Origins and Influence

To comprehend what is apocalyptic literature, we must delve into the ancient history of the Jewish people. The cornerstone of their faith and heritage was the sacred covenant with God. Jews regarded themselves as the chosen people, bestowed with God's promise of a homeland and a kingdom, rooted in the lineage of David, destined to reign forever. 

By the time Jesus of Nazareth was born, much of this was no longer true. The Jews didn’t control the land that God promised them. Romans did! Moreover, most Jews didn’t live in the land of Israel but were dispersed from Spain in the West to Persia in the East. 

Furthermore, the Son of David didn’t ascend to the throne in Jerusalem. Herod the Great assumed kingship as a Roman client with questionable lineage. Adding to the complexity, a few decades later, the Romans subjected Judea to direct rule by a Roman governor.

Except for a brief period of autonomy lasting about 80 years in the 2nd century BCE, spanning from the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BCE through the era of Jesus and beyond, Jews endured foreign rule. Within the tumultuous political landscape of these times, we find the roots of Jewish apocalyptic literature.

Why is that Happening to Us? Oppression and the Emergence of Apocalyptic Literature

The disparity between the promises of God and the prevailing political realities prompted profound theological inquiries among certain Jews:

One important way some Jews made sense of this situation was a mode of thinking historians call “Apocalyptic eschatology” or just “Apocalypticism”. 

The word “Apocalyptic” comes from the Greek word ἀποκάλυψις which means “to unveil”. Eschatology arises from the Greek word “ ἔσχατος” meaning “last”. Eschatology, therefore, is the knowledge about the final or last things. 

Jewish apocalyptic thinkers and prophets believed that God would intervene, crush the forces of evil, and set up a new Kingdom of God.

The heyday of the Jewish Apocalyptic literature began around 165 BCE at the time of the Maccabean Revolt. And during Jesus’ life, an apocalyptic worldview represented an important element of the Jewish world.

Apocalyptic Books in the Bible

We find apocalyptic eschatology in numerous Jewish and Christian writings from the centuries before and after Jesus’ birth. While the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible follow distinct paths of development, they both share common elements of apocalypticism. 

Several Old Testament books such as Isiah, Zachariah, and Ezekiel contain some apocalyptic eschatology as do nearly all the books of the New Testament. Others, however, are entirely apocalyptic. In other words, they completely consist of revealed information about the coming end of the current world order. 

In the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel (2nd century B.C.E.) is the prime example. It contains apocalyptic fiction and prophecies, especially in chapters 7-12, which deal with the rise and fall of empires and the ultimate triumph of God's kingdom.

The Book of Revelation represents the only fully developed apocalyptic book in the New Testament. It’s traditionally attributed to the apostle John and is filled with vivid visions and prophecies about the end times, the final judgment, and the establishment of God's eternal kingdom.

Apocalyptic Literature as a Genre and Its Distinctive Features

Forms of Jewish apocalyptic literature are diverse but most texts share some common ideas:

For the Jewish apocalypticists, the vindication of God was going to happen soon. As Jonathan Goldstein explains in an excellent essay: “The authors of Israelite prophecy were seldom if ever interested in the remote future, and the audiences who preserved their work were chiefly interested in the present and in a future that included little if any more than their own lifetimes.”

Apocalyptic Literature in the Bible and the Messiah Figure

Rarely does apocalyptic literature convey its concepts systematically and straightforwardly. Instead, these revelations often unfold through intricate and symbolic visions. Consider the Book of Daniel, for instance, where apocalyptic fiction introduces us to a world inhabited by a lion with wings and a fearsome beast with a horn.

The scenarios depicted in these visionary experiences are diverse. However, they commonly revolve around one or more human or superhuman figures tasked with aiding God in the defeat of malevolent forces and the establishment of His Kingdom on Earth. Such a figure is frequently referred to as the 'Anointed One,' known as the Messiah in Hebrew and Christ in Greek.

As highlighted in John J. Collins' 'The Scepter and the Star: Messianism in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls,' these Messiah figures were envisioned differently. They may assume the mantle of kings, lead battles against God's adversaries, serve as priests by instituting rightful worship in a new Temple, or even embody the role of prophets, exhorting people to lead righteous lives.

Jesus as a Jewish Apocalyptic Prophet

The degree of importance attributed to the assertions of apocalyptic eschatology varied among ancient Jews. A significant number of its proponents were not affiliated with any organized Jewish group. Instead, they operated as independent prophets who believed they were chosen by God to herald the imminent arrival of His Kingdom and to implore people to repent. 

Take, for example, a Jew named Theudas (1st century C.E.). He claimed he was a prophet who would cause the Jordan River to part just as Moses had parted the Red Sea. When his followers showed up for the event, however, Roman soldiers met them and killed many. They also beheaded Theudas. 

John the Baptist was a similar figure. He urged people to repent. They should do so in preparation for the coming judgment and kingdom of God. He baptized people in the Jordan River as a sign of their repentance. In the end, he met the same fate as Theudas. 

The Romans didn’t appreciate Jewish apocalypticism. After all, its prophets proclaimed the end of the world order that the Romans ruled and the establishment of a new order. 

Jesus of Nazareth was one of these eschatological prophets. He accepted John’s message of repentance in the coming Kingdom. At some point, however, he became convinced that God had called him to preach alone. During his public ministry, Jesus urged his fellow Jews to repent and anticipate the arrival of God’s Kingdom. Jesus’ famous violent act in Jerusalem Temple probably indicated that he considered the current Temple corrupt. 

But, just like Theudas and John the Baptist, Jesus was executed - in his case by crucifixion on the order of a Roman governor Pontius Pilate.

The Early Church as the Apocalyptic Movement

To the best of our historical knowledge, the Romans did not attempt to apprehend and execute Jesus' most devoted followers. Their intention in crucifying Jesus was likely to underscore that he held no claim to being a king of the Jews, with the anticipation that his disciples would come to recognize their error and scatter. Nevertheless, history would prove them wrong!

Based on the belief in Jesus’ resurrection, some of his followers proclaimed that he was, in fact, God’s Messiah, the King of the Jews, the one “like a Son of Man (Dan. 7:13)” who will come again on the clouds of heaven when the judgment day comes.

The first Christians believed that Jesus would return soon. This is precisely what Paul tells Christians in the city of Thessaloniki (modern-day Greece):

For we believe that Jesus died and rose again, and so we believe that God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him. According to the Lord’s word, we tell you that we who are still alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will certainly not precede those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever (1 Thess. 4:15-17).”

In other words, Paul's original message was that Jesus would soon return and judge the living and the dead. However, the first Christian community was not without doubts and certain questions:

These are the questions the writers of the NT books wrestled with. They are the source of early Christian diversity. But, beneath this diversity we can discover the fundamental conviction of the Christian faith: Through Jesus the Messiah, God has acted definitively to change things for the better. 

This was a profoundly Jewish message that originated within the Jewish apocalyptic literature but would lead to the birth of a new religion made up mostly of non-Jews.

Conclusion: The Apocalyptic Literature and the Rapture

In the labyrinthine corridors of history, the echoes of apocalyptic literature resound with tales of divine promises, prophetic visions, and the enduring human quest to decipher the enigmas of existence.

From the covenant with God and the oppression of the Jewish people through the emergence of the apocalyptic prophets to the crucifixion of Jesus and the apocalyptic beliefs of his followers, the early Christian world is a tapestry woven with apocalyptic threads.

For a deeper dive into the world of apocalyptic literature and to explore the historical analysis of the Book of Revelation and the concept of the Rapture, I invite you to spend an enlightening 50 minutes with Bart Ehrman's lecture, 'Will You Be Left Behind?' This scholarly exploration promises to unravel other mysteries within this captivating genre.